Study of the Anatomy of Human Movement

All living things on earth, including people, are always subjected to the all-inclusive power of attractive energy, and in this manner to powers from inside and encompassing the body. Through the investigation of the communication of these powers and their belongings, the shape, capacity and movement of our bodies can be inspected and the subsequent learning connected to advance personal satisfaction. Under gravity and different loads, and controlled by the sensory system, human development is accomplished through a complex and exceedingly organized mechanical collaboration between bones, muscles, tendons and joints inside the musculoskeletal framework. Any damage to, or injury in, any of the individual components of the musculoskeletal framework will change the mechanical association and cause corruption, flimsiness or incapacity of development. Then again, appropriate change, control and control of the mechanical condition can help avert damage, redress variation from the norm, and speed mending and recovery. Along these lines, understanding the biomechanics and stacking of every component amid development utilizing movement examination is useful for considering infection etiology, settling on choices about treatment, and assessing treatment impacts. In this article, the history and approach of human development biomechanics, and the hypothetical and trial strategies created for the investigation of human development, are assessed. Cases of movement examination of different patient gatherings, prostheses and orthoses, and games and activities, are utilized to exhibit the utilization of biomechanical and stereo photogrammetry-based human movement investigation concentrates to address clinical issues. It is proposed that further investigation of the biomechanics of human development and its clinical applications will profit by the coordination of existing building systems and the proceeding with improvement of new innovation. Biomechanics is the investigation of continuum mechanics (that is, the investigation of burdens, movement, stress, and strain of solids and liquids) of natural frameworks and the mechanical consequences for the body's development, size, shape and structure. Mechanical impact on natural frameworks can be found at numerous levels, from sub-atomic and cell, as far as possible up to the tissue, organ and framework level. Hence, the investigation of biomechanics of people ranges from the inward workings of a cell, the mechanical properties of delicate and hard tissues, to the advancement and development of the neuromusculoskeletal arrangement of the body. Sub-atomic biomechanics alludes to the investigation of how mechanical powers and disfigurement influence the adaptation, authoritative/response, capacity and transport of biomolecules, for example, DNA, RNA and proteins, and how mechanobiochemistry couples in biomolecular engines and particle channel streams, and so forth. Cell biomechanics is worried about the investigation of how cells sense mechanical powers or distortions, and transduce them into natural reactions, particularly for the investigation of how mechanical powers modify cell development, separation, development, flag transduction, protein influenced by connected burdens and misshapenings, and tissue biomechanics is for the most part worried about the development and redesigning of tissues as a reaction to connected mechanical boosts. For instance, the impacts of hoisted pulse on the mechanics of the blood vessel divider, and the conduct of cardiomyocytes inside a heart with a cardiovascular infarct, have been broadly viewed as occurrences in which living tissue is rebuilt as an immediate outcome of connected burdens. Another case is Wolff's law of bone rebuilding, created by Julius Wolff (1836– 1902) in the nineteenth century. Wolff's laws expresses that the inner design of the trabecular bone and the outside cortical bone in a solid individual or creature will adjust to the heaps set on the bone and it will rebuild itself after some time to end up plainly more grounded to oppose that sort of stacking. The opposite is likewise valid. On the off chance that the stacking on a bone declines, the bone will wind up plainly weaker attributable to turnover and an absence of jolt for kept redesigning that is required to keep up bone mass (Nigg and Herzog, 2007. Watkins, 1999). At the framework level, mechanical factors likewise influence the shape, execution and capacity of the musculoskeletal framework. Human development is accomplished by a complex and profoundly organized mechanical collaboration between bones, muscles, tendons and joints inside the musculoskeletal framework under the control of the sensory system [3]. Muscles produce tractable powers and apply minutes at joints with short lever arms so as to give static and dynamic steadiness of the body under gravitational and different burdens while routinely performing exact appendage control (Watkins, 1999) Any damage or sore of any of the individual components of the musculoskeletal framework will change the mechanical collaboration and cause debasement, precariousness or inability of development. Then again, legitimate adjustment, control and control of the mechanical condition can help counteract damage, amend variation from the norm, and speed recuperating and restoration. Along these lines, understanding the biomechanics and stacking of every component is useful for contemplating ailment etiology, settling on treatment choices and assessing the impacts of treatment. In any case, in view of moral contemplations and innovative impediments, coordinate estimation of the powers transmitted in the human body is conceivable just in outstanding conditions, for example, through instrumented inserts (Bergmann, et. al., 2001. Heller, et. al., 2001. Lu, et. al., 1997. Stansfield, et. al., 2003). A further test is the excess idea of the musculoskeletal framework. In the human body there are a bigger number of joints and muscles than are fundamental for playing out our day by day engine assignments. In this manner, a specific errand can be accomplished by more than one musculoskeletal system. In any case, this compensatory component is fundamental for adapting decide the inside powers noninvasively.

• Abduction, a sideways movement away from the middle of the body or, for the fingers, away from the middle finger. • Radial flexion – also known as radial deviation – denotes the movement of the middle finger away from the middle of the body . • The term hyper abduction is sometimes used to describe abduction of the upper arm beyond the vertical. • Adduction, the return movement from abduction towards the middle of the body or, for the fingers, towards the middle finger. • Ulnar flexion, also known as ulnar deviation, denotes the movement of the middle finger towards the middle of the body and can also be used for the other fingers. • Continuation of adduction beyond the reference position is usually called hyper adduction. This is only possible when combined with some flexion. • The return movement from a hyperadduction position is often called abduction in sports biomechanics although, in strict anatomical terms, it is described, again rather cumbersomely, as reduction of hyperadduction. • Lateral flexion to the right or to the left, is the sideways bending of the trunk to the right or left and, normally, the return movement from the opposite side. • Eversion and inversion refer to the raising of the lateral and medial border of the foot (the sides of the foot furthest from and nearest to the middle of the body) with respect to the other border. Eversion cannot occur without the foot tending to be displaced into a toe-out, or abducted, position; likewise, inversion tends to be accompanied by adduction. The terms pronation and supination of the foot, are widely used in describing and evaluating running gait, and may already be familiar to you for this reason. Pronation of the foot involves a combination of eversion and abduction, along with dorsiflexion of the ankle. Supination involves inversion and adduction along with plantar flexion of the ankle. These terms should not be confused

as in running, its abduction and adduction movements are restricted by friction between the shoe and the ground. Medial and lateral rotation of the lower leg is then more pronounced than in the non-weight-bearing positions.

• External and internal rotation, shown in Figure 1.5, are the outwards and inwards movements of the leg or arm about their longitudinal axes – these movements are also known, respectively, as lateral and medial rotation. External and internal rotation of the forearm are referred to, respectively, as supination and pro nation. • Rotation to the left and rotation to the right are the rather obvious terms for horizontal plane movements of the head, neck and trunk. • Horizontal flexion and extension (or horizontal abduction and adduction), shown in Figure 1.6, define the rotation of the arm about the shoulder joint or the leg about the hip joint from a position of 90° abduction. In sports biomechanics, movements from any position in the horizontal plane towards the anterior are usually called horizontal flexion and those towards the posterior horizontal extension. (In strict anatomical terms, these movements are named from the 90° abducted position; the return movements towards that position are called reduction of horizontal flexion and extension respectively).

The movement of the arm or leg to describe a cone is called circumduction and is a combination of flexion and extension with abduction and adduction. Several attempts have been made to define movements in other diagonal planes but none has been adopted universally.

The movements of the shoulder girdle are shown in Figure 6.3, along with the humerus movements with which they are usually associated. • Elevation (shown in Figure 6.3(a)), and depression are upward and downward linear movements of the scapula. They are generally accompanied by some upward (Figure 6.3(b)) and downward scapular rotation, respectively, the distal end of the scapula – that further from the middle of the body – with respect to the proximal end – that nearer the middle of the body. • Protraction and retraction describe the movements of the scapula away from (Figure 6.3(c)) and towards the vertebral column. These are not simply movements in the frontal plane but also have anterior and posterior components owing to the curvature of the thorax. • Posterior and anterior tilt are the upwards and downwards movement, respectively, of the inferior angle – the lower tip – of the scapula away from (Figure 6.3(d)) or towards the thorax.

Changes in the position of the pelvis are brought about by the motions at the lumbosacral joint, between the lowest lumbar vertebra and the sacrum, and the hip joints. Movements at these joints, shown in Figure 6.4, permit the pelvis to tilt forwards, backwards and sideways (laterally) and to rotate horizontally. • Forward tilt, from the position in Figure 6.4(a) to that in Figure 6.4(b), involves increased inclination in the sagittal plane about the frontal axis. This results from lumbosacral hyperextension and, in the standing position, hip flexion. The lower part of the pelvic girdle where the pubic bones join – the symphysis pubis – turns downwards and the posterior surface of the sacrum turns upwards. • Backward tilt, from the position in Figure 6.4(a) to that in Figure 6.4(c), involves decreased inclination in the sagittal plane about the frontal axis. This results from umbosacral flexion and, in the standing position, hip extension. The symphysis pubis moves forwards and upwards and the posterior surface of the sacrum turns somewhat downwards. • Lateral tilt is the movement of the pelvis in the frontal plane about the sagittal axis such that one iliac crest is lowered and the other is raised. This can be demonstrated by standing on one foot with the other slightly raised directly upwards off the ground, keeping the leg straight. The tilt is named from the side of the pelvis that moves downwards; in lateral tilt of the pelvis to the flexion of the lumbosacral joint, abduction of the left hip and adduction of the right. • Rotation or lateral twist (Figure 6.4(d)) is the rotation of the pelvis in the horizontal plane about a vertical axis. The movement is named after the direction towards which the front of the pelvis turns.

In this section, the functions of the human skeleton and the form, nature and composition of its bones will be considered. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton, of which 177 engage in voluntary movement. The functions of the skeleton are: to protect vital organs such as the brain, heart and lungs; to provide rigidity for the body; to provide muscle attachments whereby the bones function as levers, allowing the muscles to move them about the joints; to enable the manufacture of blood cells; and to provide a storehouse for mineral metabolism. The skeleton is often divided into the axial skeleton, comprising the skull, lower jaw, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, sacrum and coccyx, which is mainly protective, and the appendicular skeleton, consisting of the shoulder girdle and upper extremities, and the pelvic girdle and lower extremities, which functions in movement.

Macroscopically, there are two types of bone tissue: cortical, or compact, bone and trabecular, or cancellous, bone. The first forms the outer shell, or cortex, of a bone and has a dense structure. The second has a loose latticework structure of trabeculae or cancelli; the spaces – or interstices – between the trabeculae are filled with red marrow in which red blood cells form. Cancellous bone tissue is arranged in concentric layers, or lamellae, and its cells, called osteocytes, are supplied with nutrients from blood vessels passing through the red marrow. The lamellar pattern and material composition of the two bone types are similar. Different porosity is the principal distinguishing feature, and the distinction between the two types might be considered somewhat arbitrary. Biomechanically, the two types of bone should be considered as one material with a wide range of densities and porosities. It can be classified as a composite material in which the strong but brittle mineral element is embedded in a weaker but more ductile one consisting of collagen and ground substance.

Muscles are structures that convert chemical energy into mechanical work and heat energy. In studying sport and exercise movements biomechanically, the striated muscle fibres of alternating light and dark bands. Muscles are extensible, that is they can stretch or extend, and elastic, such that they can resume their resting length after extending. They possess excitability and contractility. Excitability means that they respond to a chemical stimulus by generating an electrical signal, the action potential, along the plasma membrane. Contractility refers to the unique ability of muscle to shorten and hence produce movement. Skeletal muscles account for approximately 40–50% of the mass of an adult of normal weight. From a sport or exercise point of view, skeletal muscles exist as about 75 pairs. The main skeletal muscles are shown in Figure 6.8. The proximal attachment of a muscle, that nearer the middle of the body, is known as the origin and the distal attachment as the insertion. The attachment points of skeletal muscles to bone and the movements they cause are not listed here but can be found in many books dealing with exercise physiology and anatomy.

In this paper, we focused on the anatomical principles that relate to movement in sport and exercise. This included consideration of the planes and axes of movement and the principal movements in those planes. The functions of the skeleton, the types of bone, the process of bone fracture and typical surface features of bone were covered. We then looked at the tissue structures involved in the joints of the body, joint stability and mobility and the identification of the features and classes of synovial joints. The features and structure of skeletal muscles were considered along with the ways in which muscles are structurally and functionally classified, the types and mechanics of muscular contraction, how tension is produced in muscle and how the total force exerted by a muscle can be resolved into components depending on the angle of pull. The use of electromyography in the study of muscle activity in sports biomechanics was considered, including the equipment and methods used, and the processing of EMG data. Universal gravitation affects all life forms on earth. Our body is constantly subject to forces from within and surrounding the body. Through the study of the interaction of the forces and their effects on the body, the form, function and motion of our biological body can be studied and the resulting knowledge can be applied to promoting quality of life.

Clinical Gait Analysis, University of Vienna, Austria. History of the study of locomotion. http://www.univie.ac.at/cga/history/.

Sons, Hoboken NJ. J. Watkins (1999). Structure and function of the musculoskeletal system Human Kinetics, Champaign. G. Bergmann, G. Deuretzbacher, M. Heller, F. Graichen, A. Rohlmann, J. Strauss, et. al. (2001). Hip contact forces and gait patterns from routine activities J Biomech, 34, pp. 859-871 ArticlePDF (1MB) M.O. Heller, G. Bergmann, G. Deuretzbacher, L. Durselen, M. Pohl, L. Claes, et al. (2001). Musculo-skeletal loading conditions at the hip during walking and stair climbing J Biomech, 34, pp. 883-893 ArticlePDF (353KB) T.W. Lu, S.J. Taylor, J.J. O’Connor, P.S. Walker (1997). Influence of muscle activity on the forces in the femur: an in vivo study J Biomech, 30, pp. 1101-1106 ArticlePDF (704KB) B.W. Stansfield, A.C. Nicol, J.P. Paul, I.G. Kelly, F. Graichen, G. Bergmann (2003). Direct comparison of calculated hip joint contact forces with those measured using instrumented implants. An evaluation of a three-dimensional mathematical model of the lower limb J Biomech, 36, pp. 929-936 ArticlePDF (324KB) P. Allard, I.A.F. Stokes, J.P. Blanchi (1995). Three-dimensional analysis of human movement Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL T.W. Lu (1997). Geometric and mechanical modelling of the human locomotor system, University of Oxford, Oxford A. Cappozzo, U. Della Croce, A. Leardini, L. Chiari (2005). Human movement analysis using stereo photogrammetry. Part 1: theoretical background Gait Posture, 21, pp. 186-196. ArticlePDF (335KB) T.P. Andriacchi, E.J. Alexander (2000). Studies of human locomotion: past, present and future J Biomech, 33, pp. 1217-1224. ArticlePDF (478KB) Center for Photogrammetric Training, Ferris State University, History of photogrammetry Ferris State University, Michigan (2008) L. Chiari, U. Della Croce, A. Leardini, A. Cappozzo (2005). Human movement analysis using stereophotogrammetry. Part 2: instrumental errors Gait Posture, 21, pp. 197-211. Article PDF (258KB) D.H. Sutherland (2001) The evolution of clinical gait analysis part l: kinesiological EMG Gait Posture, 14, pp. 61-70. ArticlePDF (296KB) D.H. Sutherland, R. Olshen, L. Cooper, S.L. Woo (1980). The development of mature gait J Bone Joint Surg Am, 62, pp. 336-353. D.H. Sutherland (1997). The development of mature gait Gait Posture, 6, pp. 163-170. ArticlePDF (163KB) J.R. Gage (1983). Gait analysis for decision-making in cerebral palsy Bull Hosp Joint Dis Orthop Inst, 43, pp. 147-163

Assistant Professor, V.S.S.D. PG College, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh E-Mail – vippusingh2@gmail.com