A Study on Language Learning Strategy with Its Classification and Training Model

INTRODUCTION

Language learning strategies is a concept that refers to processes and activities that are deliberately adopted by language learners to help them learn or use language more effectively. (Rose, Heath 2015; Shatz, I2014) Which have also been described as 'thoughts and acts, deliberately selected and applied by language learners, to assist them in carries out a multiplicity of tasks from the very start of learning. Original research aimed at recording the approaches of successful language learners (Cohen, Andrew 2011). In the 1980s, the focus turned to the grouping of language learning techniques. Techniques were initially categorized according to whether they were overt or indirect, and then they were split into cognitive, metacognitive or affective/social categories. (O'Malley, J; Chamot, A 1990) In 1990, Rebecca Oxford released her seminal book 'Language Learning Strategies: What Any Instructor Should Recognize,' which included the 'Strategy List for Language Learning' or 'SILL,' a questionnaire (Oxford, Rebecca 1990). Controversies about fundamental concerns, such as classification, escalated in the late 1990s and early 2000s, but some researchers (Macaro, Ernesto 2006). gave up attempting to describe the term in favor of describing main features. Others (Dornyei, Zoltan 2005) have discarded the word technique in favor of self-regulation.

Issues concerning thinking style are often linked, i.e. students who are eager and capable of thinking more abstractly and/or objectively analyze what they do and that demonstrate improved results. The learning style relates to the interaction between people & their behavioral patterns (Willingham 2015) while the learning strategies relate to attitudes & actions that are goal-oriented. As an instance, one may compare or oppose the following:

Several researchers have sought to identify learning methods. Comprehensive classification systems of learning strategies were developed to classify knowledge extracted from concise research that aim to map complex permutations and sometimes imprecise meanings of self- language studies, or to build a detailed collection of learning strategies derived from several sources. Until recently, the definition and evaluation of methods have been powered by a think-aloud study of protocols. (2004 Chamber of Commerce)

Wenden's (1983) study looks into the methods that adult foreign language learners use to direct their own learning. Therefore, Wenden's emphasis is on what O'Malley & Chamot consider meta-cognitive approaches. It defines the following three general types of self-directed strategies: 1) Knowledge of language & relevant to what language & language learning includes; 2) planning for the 'what' &'how' of language learning; 3) self-assessment. It refers to success in learning and the reaction of the learner to the learning experience. Wenden's system was perceived to be the foundation for the instruction of the subsequent EFL learner.

Dansereau (1985) distinguishes among main approach & support strategy, the former can be utilized for active control of learning resources, while the latter aims to develop an effective learning mindset & also aims to deal with challenges, fatigue &frustration. Later Oxford suggested two specific definitions paralleling Dansereau's main strategies & supporting strategies.

Based on the criterion for whether the technique leads explicitly or implicitly to learning, Rubin suggested a classification system which would subsume learning methods in two principal & variety of subgroups. It explains the typology of three main approaches: literacy, (interactive) contact, & social approaches. Training methods "contribute to the growth of the language structure ... & specifically influence training" (Rubin 1987:23). Language acquisition approaches are further divided into cognitive & meta-cognitive techniques that specifically impact the progress of the learned language network. The cognitive techniques of Rubin provide: clarification / verification, guessing / inductive inferencing, deductive inference, practice (e.g. repetition, rehearsal, testing, interpretation of laws, emulation, attention to detail), memorization, & surveillance. Meta-cognitive approaches include a number of methods, including preparation, act of taking part in a dialogue and interpreting or confirming the original purpose of the speaker. The social techniques that indirectly lead to language learning are identified by Rubin as practices that offer them the ability to learn and exercise their skills. Which include: queries to fellow students / teachers / native speakers, starting talks, listening to L2 media, and so on.

A distinction is made amongst overt & indirect approaches of Oxford (1990). Jones (1998) suggests that Oxford has built a method of language learning approaches that is more systematic & more informative than the previous classification models. Moreover, as Oxford itself acknowledges, there is no consensus on the simple meanings of the words 'absolute' and 'indirect,' or on 'exactly what strategies are; whether often strategies exist; how they must be described, demarcated and classified.' Active strategies involving "active thinking and the usage of the subject matter, in this case a foreign phrase" are subdivided into three groups: knowledge strategies, cognitive strategies and reinforcement strategies; indirect language acquisition strategies that "contribute implicitly yet effectively to thinking" are often subdivided into three associations: meta-cognitive strategies, affective strategies, & According to Oxford (1990), memory techniques, such as the building of mental links and the use of behaviors, help to insert knowledge into long-term memory & recover knowledge as required for contact. Cognitive techniques, such as interpretation and logic, are used to create and rewrite internal behavioral styles and to obtain & generate signals in the target language. Compensation techniques, such as predicting unfamiliar terms when listening and reading or utilizing circumlocution in speech and writing, are used by learners where language functions are beyond their control, to account for their failure in target language in order to maintain contact. Meta-cognitive approaches allow learners to control their learning through preparing, arranging, concentrating & assessing their own learning process. Active approaches allow learners to regulate emotions such as trust, excitement and attitudes relevant to language learning. Verbal techniques, such as answering questions & communicating with others, promote contact with others, particularly in the form of dialogue. While several variables that affect the degree at which & manner in which language learners use particular strategies, in particular, they can implement all the various strategies dependent on their cultural & ethnic context, temperament, gender, competence, language learning intent, cognitive ability, task at hand, respectively. It is also recognised that the

Which, can help individual learners to follow or further improve a variety of successful language learning techniques and may inspire teachers to include their active use in daily classes. As Oxford (1990) put it, "strategies are particularly valuable for language learning since they are instruments for successful, self-directed involvement that are necessary for the growth of communicative competence."

O'Malley & Chamot's (1990) description originated from discussions with professionals and novices & systematic study of reading comprehension & problem solving. Language learning strategies are separated into three main categories of cognitive, meta-cognitive & affective or social strategies: in their opinion, meta-cognitive strategies include knowledge of learning & learning control through planning (including advanced organizers, targeted attention, functional planning, selective attention & self-management), monitoring (checki) Cognitive techniques include the shaping or modification of the information to be studied, like resourcing, description, sorting, inference, visualization, auditory interpretation, main word process, elaboration, translation, inferencing, making notes, summarizing, recombining and interpreting. And social / affective approaches typically include the learner in communicative encounters with another individual, for example by engaging alongside friends in problem-solving activities.

As per Cohen (2000), language learning & language utilize strategies are described as systems that are deliberately chosen by learners. Language learning approaches, which are used specifically to enhance learner comprehension of a given language, are made up of cognitive strategies, meta-cognitive strategies, affective strategies & social strategies. Although language-based approaches, including retention techniques, training approaches, techniques & conversation strategies, rely mainly on making students understand the language as often as possible. This may resulted in acts that facilitate the learning or usage of a second or foreign language by processing, maintaining, remembering, and implementing knowledge in or regarding the target language. Meta-cognitive techniques include pre-assessment & pre-preparation, on-line preparation & review, & post-assessment of language acquisition experiences and language usage incidents. Such approaches enable learners to monitor their attention by organizing the preparation, organization and assessment of the learning cycle. Cognitive retention, training, and interpreting or generating second-language verbs, phrases, & other components. Affective approaches are used to control feelings, inspiration, and behaviors, such as anxiety-reduction & self-encouragement techniques. Social techniques include behavior that learners chose to do in order to communicate with several other learners & native speakers, like clarity and cooperation. Retrieval techniques apply to tactics that enable learners retrieve language resources from storage via certain memory-searching methods that learners may bring together, including the keyword mnemonic. Rehearsal strategies stand for stratification. Cover techniques are countervailing or coping mechanisms that learners use to mask their loss of language skills or to build the illusion that they have power of the content while they do not. Simplification & ambiguity are classic examples of reporting approaches (Cohen, 2000).

Rubin (1981) states that perhaps the techniques are not the domain of exceptionally qualified people, but may be studied by anyone. O'Malley et al. (1994) further suggests that learning strategies of effective language learners, if established and effectively applied to less qualified learners, may have a significant capacity to improve the production of second language skills; but that second language instructors may play an important and useful role by training students how to adapt learning strategies to a range of language tasks. For the advancement of strategy planning, researchers have developed and evaluated a number of strategy planning models.

Pearson & Dole (1987) developed a technique teaching model for L1 learners. It recommends that teachers first provide students with an overview of the effects of applying a similar technique & training, accompanied by students moving the approach to a different setting. Students can better appreciate the implementations of the several strategies when they are first demonstrated by the instructor and then implemented independently. Once several techniques have been adopted and applied, the instructor should also facilitate the usage of an individual approach and foster the individuality of the learners. The following sequences are used in the Pearson & Dole versions (Cohen, 1998): them and how, where, where & why the technique is utilized; 2) description & clarification. The technique is established & its implementation is illustrated by instructor modeling; 3) Guided practice. Teachers & students train together in order to enable students to work independently; 4) Individual practice. Students conduct the same method of workout individually. Pearson & Dole‘s model cast some lights on learning strategy training, however, this model is narrowed down on one simple strategy or skill, and thus, it‘s hard to develop students‘ problem-solving competence in complex and authentic learning tasks.

Oxford‘s Model (1990) has many strong points. It is carried out step by step in the following procedure: 1) Learners are asked to immerse into an authentic language task without instructional cues; 2) Recommend & explain other helpful strategies, recognize necessity greater self-direction & potential advantages, & insure which students are informed of the reasons for utilizing the strategy;; 3) Allow learners plenty of time to practice the new strategies with language tasks and show how the strategies can be transferred to other tasks; 4) Provide practice using the techniques with new tasks and allow learners to make choices about the strategies they will use to complete the language learning tasks; 5) Help students understand how to evaluate the success of their strategy use and to gauge their progress as more responsible and self-directed learners. Generally, this model is flexible in terms of procedure, in other words, each step can be modified or rearranged in different orders for different needs and intentions. But the weak point of this model is it is hard to be inserted into a regular classroom program.

language skills of students with minimal English proficiency. After their first suggestion of this method in 1986, Chamot and O'Malley have been constantly working on, developing & improving the concept. This model combines instructional language creation, material field guidance & specific training in learning approaches for both information & language acquisition. The CALLA (Chamot, 2005; Chamot et al., 1999) model consists of six phases, i.e.: 1) Planning. Throughout this point, the instructor describes the existing learning methods of students for common activities, including remembering their prior experience, previewing main words & ideas to be incorporated into the lesson; 2) Presentation. At this point, the teacher's examples, titles, discusses a new strategy; asks students whether and how they have would use it, like selective attention, self-monitoring, interpretation, elaboration, visualization and note-taking strategies; 3) Practice. At this point, students are learning a new strategy; in subsequent strategy rehearsal, teachers are fading reminders to promote the use of an individual approach by telling them to review their language output, intend to prepare an oral or written study or identify concepts; 4) Evaluation. In this step, students assess their own approaches to use them directly after instruction, and decide the feasibility of their own learning by summarizing or self-talking, whether cooperatively and individually; 5) Expension exercises. Throughout this level, students can move strategies to different challenges, merge strategies into clusters, build a portfolio of favorite strategies & incorporate them into their current information frameworks. 6) Assessment. At this point, the instructor reviews the students' usage of techniques and their effect on results. Chamot‘s model integrates strategy learning into the content-based and academic activities, which reflects the philosophy in language learning and teaching. The CALLA model is recursive instead of linear in such a way that teachers & students still have the choice of updating previous training phases if required (Chamot, 2005) and useful for language learners of different levels, which has been considered as a guide for implementing a

Cohen's (1998) Styles and Strategies-Based Instruction Model (SSBI) is a learner-centered approach, which includes each of explicit & implicit integration of strategies into the course content. Generally speaking, in a SSBI Model, the teachers usually play the following roles: 1) Teacher as diagnostician. The teacher helps the students identify current strategies and learning styles 2) Teacher as language learner. The teacher shares own learning experiences and thinking processes. 3) Teacher as learner trainer. The teacher trains the students how to use learning strategies. 4) Teacher as coordinator. Teacher manages student curricula & monitors challenges 5) Teacher as coach. The teacher provides on going guidance on students‘ progress. Comparatively speaking, Cohen's model describes and prescribes what a teacher should do in a regular EFL classroom. It provides more flexibility for teachers to explicitly and implicitly embed the language strategies training into regular classroom program. And it makes more sense in the perspective of student-centered EFL instruction. This approach is followed by other quantitative or non-experimental approaches for the teaching of cognitive & meta-cognitive techniques.

Grenfell & Harris (1999) also established a model of language learning approaches for teaching as follows: 1) Awareness raising. Students conclude the assignment & then describe the methods they have utilized. 2) The modeling. Teacher examples, explores the importance of a particular approach, allows a checklist of strategies for potential utilize. 3) General practice. Students are learning new approaches for various activities. 4) Planning action. Students set targets & use methods to achieve those objectives. students choose methods immediately. 6) Evaluation. Teachers & students evaluate the performance of the action plan; establish new objectives; the process starts again. In summary, all the above-mentioned models share a number of common features stressing on the importance of developing students‘ meta-cognitive understanding of the value of learning strategies & may facilitated by teacher‘s demonstration and modeling. Though practicing and evaluating, the strategies get internalized and automatized and then being transferred to solve new tasks.

Analysis on what learners are using to address language learning challenges has developed in the analysis of common strategies & efforts to identify them as per various parameters. Different researchers have labeled different learning behaviors out of different considerations. Although considerable headway has undoubtedly been made, language learning strategies classification systems clearly need further development and standardization. In particular, An appropriate & efficient language learning strategy teaching model that supports both EFL learners & instructors is needed.

Abraham, R. G., & Vann, R. J. (1987). Strategies of two language learners: A case study. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learners strategies in language learning (pp. 85-102). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Chamot, A. U., & Kupper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annuals, 22, 13-24. Chamot, A.U. & EI-Dniary, P.B. (1999). Children's learning strategies in immersion classrooms. The Modern Language Journal, 83(3), 319-341. Chamot, A.U. (2004). Issues in Language Learning Strategy Research and Teaching. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 1/1:14-26. Chamot, A.U. (2005). The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA): An update. In P.A. Richard-Amato & M.A. Snow (Eds.), Academic success for English language learners: Strategies for Cohen, A.D. (1998, 2000). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Addison Wesley Longman Limited. Cohen, Andrew (2011). Strategies in learning and using a second language (2nd ed.). Longman. Dansereau, D F. (1985). Learning Strategy Research. In J.W. Segal, S.F. Chipman and R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and Learning Skills. Hillsdale, N J Erlbaum, (1):9-39. Dornyei, Zoltan (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition (PDF). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Grenfell, M. & Harris, V. (1999). Modern languages and learning strategies: In theory and practice. London: Routledge. Jones,R.(1998). Two faces of AIDS in Hong Kong: Culture and the construction of the AIDS celebrity. Discourse and Society 9/3:353-382. Macaro, Ernesto (2006). "Strategies for language learning and for language use: Revising the theoretical framework". Modern Language Journal. 90 (3): 320–337. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2006.00425.x. O‘Malley et al. (1985a). Learning Strategies Used by Beginning and Intermediate ESL Students. In Language Learning. O‘Malley M & A U Chamot. (1994). The CALLA handbook: implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach.N.J: Addison-Wesley, Reading MA. Harlow, England: Longman. O‘Malley, J.M. & A.U. Chamot. (1990).Learning strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. O'Malley, J; Chamot, A (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press. Oxford R& M Nyikos. (1989). Variables Affecting Choice of Language Learning Strategies by University Students.The Modern Language Journal, (3):291-299. Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House, 284-297. Person P D&J A Dole. (1987). Explicit Comprehension Instruction: A Review of Research and a New Conceptualization of Learning. Elementary School Journal. Rose, Heath (2015). "Researching language learning strategies". In Paltridge, Brian; Phakiti, Aek (eds.). Research methods in applied linguistics. Bloomsbury. Rubin, Joan (1975). "What the good language learner can teach us". TESOL Quarterly. 9(1): 41–51. doi:10.2307/3586011. JSTOR 3586011. Rubin. (1987). Learner Strategies: Theoretical Assumptions, Research History and Typology. In Wenden & Rubin (Eds.). Rubin. J. (1981). Study of Cognitive Processes in Second Language Learning.Applied Linguistics (2):117-131. Shatz, I (2014). "Parameters for Assessing the Effectiveness of Language Learning Strategies" (PDF). Journal of Language and Cultural Education. 2 (3): 96–103. Stern, H. (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wenden,A & J.Rubin.(1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Willingham, Daniel T.; Hughes, Elizabeth M.; Dobolyi, David G. (July 2015). "The scientific status of learning styles theories". Teaching of Psychology. 42 (3): 266–271. doi:10.1177/0098628315589505.

Master of Arts (English) MCM DAV College for Women Sector-36, Chandigarh