An Overview on the Second Language English and Paralanguage for Learning or Teaching English

1. INTRODUCTION

Paralinguistic phenomena occur alongside spoken language, interact with it, and produce together with it a total system of communication. The study of paralinguistic behavior is part of the study of conversation: ―the conversational use of spoken language cannot be properly understood unless paralinguistic elements are taking into account‖. Paralanguage is the area of non-verbal communication that highlights body language and voice tones as means of expressing thoughts and feelings. There are several aspects of paralanguage such as posture, eye contact, hand gestures, and tone of voice. Vocal qualities such as volume and tempo are also part of non-verbal communication. The study of paralanguage is also known as paralinguistic. In addition, Paralanguage is the exception to the definition of nonverbal communication. You may recall that we defined nonverbal communication as not involving words, but paralanguage exists when we are speaking, using words. Paralanguage involves verbal and nonverbal aspects of speech that influence meaning, including tone, intensity, pausing, and even silence [1]. It is clear that communicating to other people in human society is inevitable. One of the main activities of communication is pedagogy. In the classroom, teacher uses verbal or non-verbal signs to convey message to learners. Many researchers note that people communicate nonverbally over 90% of the time, and the human voice or tool affects to one called paralanguage. Paralanguage has many forms such as facial expressions, gestures, and other body movements [2].

Perez-Vidal et al (2011) aim at describing and explaining the effects of a period of Study Abroad spent in the target language country (SA) on foreign language development. Such effects are analyzed in the short- and midterm and in contrast with the impact of a period of formal instruction (FI) previously spent in the home country (AH). It is hypothesized that because each of the two contexts has differential patterns of input exposure, both quantitatively and qualitatively; their effect on the participants' communicative and motivational development will also be different [3]. The learners' abilities to avail themselves of opportunities for contact with the target language that the SA context provides are also taken into account. For this purpose, a sample of Catalan/Spanish EFL undergraduates who spent a compulsory three-

abilities was carried out, and both global and fine-grained measurements were applied to the data. Comparisons were also drawn between the sample of non-native English speaking learners (NNSs) and baseline data from a similar sample of native English-speaking (NSs) exchange students [4]. Canale and Swain (2010) argue that students learning a second language tend to develop integrative motivation, as opposed to the learners of a foreign language, who tend to feel more motivated by instrumental reasons, as they do not have opportunities to have contact with the speakers of the target language. However, this argument has been rejected by a number of empirical studies. Two studies conducted in Indonesia, for instance, revealed that the participants‘ motivation in studying English as a foreign language in two Indonesian high schools was more integrative than instrumental. This could indicate that the primary reason for studying English in these study contexts was to be able to have opportunities in a conversation with English speaking people, rather than pragmatic goals like in assisting in the pursuit of a career. Krishna Rao (2014) in his article entitled, ‗communicative English and second language learner‘ opines that communicative behavior in a classroom is rather complex. In a class where the strength is of alarming proportions, developing communicative skills may be impossible. Multi- lingual situation is yet another problem. Anyhow if a course syllabus is drawn keeping in need the learners‘ mind of the hour, it is possible to make headway considerably in teaching English as a tool for communication at different levels. Tosuncuoglu, Irfan (2011) examines the language is as a system for communicative purposes and as such it involves more than just a structural organization. Indeed this view of language considers different kinds of competence which make communication really meaningful: linguistic, sociolinguistic discourse, and strategic. Linguistic competence is what we usually regard as the basis of grammatical structures; sociolinguistic competence has to do with the social context in which language is used; discourse competence refers to the relationship between the elements of language and their proper combination to convey meaningful outcomes; strategic competence relates to the ways we deal with communication appropriately. On the other hand, language learning is viewed as the result of the process of using language communicatively. The proponents of this approach believe that in order to learn a language, students should be in contact with meaningful and authentic language most of the learning time [5]. Choudhary (2011) investigated the clarity of three task categories for a group of Philippines teachers of points to be included in language teacher education. Thirty three in-service teachers of English in the Philippines participated in this study; they were attending a course on language instruction at the Philippines Normal University in Manila. The findings of the study showed that the term "task-based language teaching" was fairly new to most participants; most participants seemed to feel that the categories were at least moderately useful in their teaching [6].

Beaumont et al (2011) explore a common dichotomy that characterizes debate about what has come to be termed "appropriate methodology". It is that between "traditional" and "communicative" approaches to language teaching, a distinction that persists despite arguments by some that the term "communicative" should be superseded or even abandoned altogether. We are particularly interested in how the dichotomy relates to language classrooms in the so-called "Confucian heritage cultures" (CHCs). Using evidence from the literature and from a small exploratory study we carried out with teachers of English in South Korea, we will attempt to demonstrate, firstly, that the dichotomy is dubious, and, secondly, that the distinction needs recasting if it is not to inhibit methodological development in CHCs and, possibly, wider ELT contexts [7]. Barraja-Rohan, Anne-Marie (2011) focuses on the use of conversation analysis (CA) to help teaching interactional competence in English to adult second language learners from lower to intermediate levels. To set the context, this article gives a brief overview on the use of CA in second language research as well as considering the construct of interactional competence in second language teaching. Based on classroom research, the article demonstrates how CA applied in the second language classroom was effective initially in raising students' awareness of both the mechanisms and norms of spoken interaction, and also eventually in helping them to become analysts of conversation and more effective conversationalists. To better understand what CA concepts needed to be taught a conversation analysis of the students' undirected conversations was undertaken revealing interactional problems not noticed through traditional methods of investigation. It is therefore suggested that a CA-informed pedagogical approach can help to teach interactional competence or competencies, by using materials designed for that purpose [8]. Reber, Elisabeth (2011) claimed that communicative competence involves knowledge about when and how to display affectivity in talk-in- German elementary and secondary schools reveals that interjections are often used in (constructed) conversation examples. However, the translations of the interjections given do not adequately account for their meanings and use. Illustrated by a case study on two forms and uses of "oh", it is argued that the approach of Interactional Linguistics can provide an empirical basis for teaching interjections in the EFL classroom. Based on the finding that the competent use of interjections depends on the correct production of the segmental and prosodic form and the timely positioning in a conversational sequence of actions, didactic guidelines for teaching interjections are proposed [9]. Kramsch, Claire (2011) While communicative competence is characterized by the negotiation of intended meanings in authentic contexts of language use, intercultural competence has to do with far less negotiable discourse worlds, the "circulation of values and identities across cultures, the inversions, even inventions of meaning, often hidden behind a common illusion of effective communication". The self that is engaged in intercultural communication is a symbolic self that is constituted by symbolic systems like language as well as by systems of thought and their symbolic power [10]. This symbolic self is the most sacred part of our personal and social identity; it demands for its well-being careful positioning, delicate face work, and the ability to frame and re-frame events. The symbolic dimension of intercultural competence calls for an approach to research and teaching that is discourse-based, historically grounded, aesthetically sensitive, and that takes into account the actual, the imagined and the virtual worlds in which we live. With the help of concrete examples from the real world and foreign language classrooms, the paper attempts to redefine the notion of third place as symbolic competence [11].

Paul Davies and Eric Pearse‘s (2011) Success in English Teaching (Oxford: OUP) is a book designed to serve as a reference for classroom teachers and teacher trainers, and contains a single chapter, ‗Development in Teaching English‘, dedicated to the area of history. The authors explain that they are offering here ‗a historical survey of widely used approaches‘, and describe ‗the principles underlying them and the typical activities and techniques used in each‘ Sandra Sauvignon‘s entry for ‗Communicative‘ in Language Teaching in the Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning [12]. Nguyen, Minh ThiThuy (2011) reports on the finding of a study which aims to analyze and evaluate the pragmatic content of a recently developed series of textbooks and whether adequate contextual and meta-pragmatic information is provided to facilitate the learning of these speech acts. The article also draws implications regarding the writing of ESL/EFL materials for developing intercultural communicative competence in the context of English as a Global Language. Takeda, Aya. Et al. (2016) compares and summarizes the organization, content, linguistic skills, and tasks of the Japanese and Korean English textbooks used in 3rd-year junior high and 1st-year high school. The continuity of the textbooks between the two grades was also analyzed. Findings: The framework of educational approach, the balance of four skills, the continuity of the level and the difficulty of the text were the major observed differences. Learning through the differences and similarities, considerations for future textbook writers are suggested [13]. Davidova, Evguenia (2011) analyzes the findings of a pilot project conducted in 2008-2009 as a partnership between University Studies, Portland State University's interdisciplinary general education program, and the University's Russian Flagship Language Partner Program [14]. The project proposes a new approach of integrating non-English speakers' language skills, culture, and life experiences into classroom activities of general education courses. By engaging the students as facilitators in the exploration of their own cultures and languages, the project offers a model of enriching collaborative student teaching and learning that could be applied to various interdisciplinary courses. Byram, Katra A. (2011) presents the concept of linguistic and cultural perspective as a strategy for helping students to develop the interrelated linguistic and cultural competencies at the heart of these goals. Because of its centrality to both language and culture, this concept can link communicative, form-focused, and cultural instruction and promote the critical awareness that underlies the target competencies. Instructional examples from beginning, intermediate, and advanced German-language classrooms illustrate how the concept of perspective can be used to pursue these goals [15].

In their paper Knapp, (2009) aimed to provide teachers with evidence related to the effect of paralanguage on students‘ learning, and paralanguage and learner‘s awareness examined in areas such as nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication examined in a number of spoken messages along with verbal communication. So, paralanguage has positive impact on students‘ learning. Movements and

paralanguage effectively can play significant role in conveying positive meaning of verbal communication. So, people have a specified tendency to interpret the message easily. Communication is an inevitable, fundamental concept in human society. It is a tool through which people communicate and share meaning. In this definition, a symbol represents by word, action, or object to convey meaning. Yet, the communication process consists of verbal and non-verbal means. So, people need to understand that how to say things can be more important than what to say [16]. Burgoon and Hoobler (2012) found final significant of non-verbal communication—encoding and decoding skills—correspond to the power of attracting people. Nonverbal communicative signifiers are effective ways to influence other people. Non-verbal encoding and decoding communicative skills relate to interpersonal communication: gender, occupation, training and age, but not to race, education, and intelligence. However, higher education teachers need to be mindful of the poor elements of using paralanguage. In common, there are five errors, related to paralanguage, are demonstrated by teachers; these are: poor personal habits, continually stiff, blocking or touching face, exaggerated hand gestures, and tapping or shaking legs and hands [17]. According to Miller (2018), 93% of the message sent through facial expressions and vocal intonation. Previous research on the role between the learners‘ awareness of learning and teachers‘ paralanguage started early in the 1970s [18]. Mehrabian (2011) and Anderson (2009) are considering among the first researchers of education that begin the trend of non-verbal communication. In the class-room, students held their teacher‘s positive perception and class when teacher‘s immediacy presented. According to their studies‘ findings, paralanguage plays an essential role in the classroom setting [19]. Hybels (2014) delineated the functions of the non-verbal communicative skills, and, the incompatibility between the verbal and non-verbal communicative messages [20]. Yet, it reflects the sender‘s feelings and attitudes of speakers better than spoken words. In many empirical studies, students‘ strong perception link to the teacher‘s nonverbal communication. In his study, he considers paralanguage as a communicative effect of the speech, pitch, volume, and intonation. There is strongly correlation between the teacher‘s effectiveness and his communicative style. The use of space (proxemics) and paralanguage positively affect teachers‘ non-verbal communication. Leathers and Eaves (2018) found that eliminating physical obstacle can positively affect communication and utilizing proxemics. This paper studies the effects of associates to learners‘ awareness of the lectured topic [21].

Technology has become inevitable in every walk of life in 21st century. Education system is not an exception. The use of technology in L2 acquisition got momentum in the latter half of the 20th century. Teaching English as a second/foreign language requires creative, innovative and motivating teaching strategies. Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify meaning and convey emotion. Moreover, it may be expressed consciously or unconsciously. It includes the pitch, volume, and intonation of speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocally-produced sounds. Paralanguage strategy helps to convey effective meaning and provide teachers with past evidence concerning the effect of paralanguage have in students‘ learning. Paralanguage has great impact on teaching and learning English as the second or foreign language. Effective language learning is facilitated by teachers through providing a non-threatening environment in which learners feel comfortable and self-confident and are encouraged to take risks to use the target language. Teachers play a crucial role in initiating and maintaining students‘ motivation in classrooms by selectively adopting effective strategies in facilitating and enhancing learning in accordance with students‘ motivation.

1. Perez-Vidal, Carmen; Juan-Garau, Maria (2011). The Effect of Context and Input Conditions on Oral and Written Development: A Study Abroad Perspective (EJ936556) International Review of Applied Linguisticsin Language Teaching (IRAL), v49 n2, pp. 157-185 2. Tosuncuoglu, Irfan (2011). Communicative Language Learning as a Motivating Factor (EJ936664) Educational Research and Reviews, v6 n7, pp. 509-515. 3. Beaumont, Mike; Chang, Kyung-Suk (2011). Challenging the Traditional/Communicative Dichotomy ELT Journal, v65 n3, pp. 291-299 4. Barraja-Rohan, Anne-Marie (2011). Using Conversation Analysis in the Second Language Classroom to Teach Interactional Competence Language Teaching Research, v15 n4, pp. 479-507.

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6. Kramsch, Claire (2011). The Symbolic Dimensions of the Intercultural Language Teaching, v44 n3, pp. 354-367 7. Krishna Rao, A. V. (2014). ―Communicative English and the Second Language Learner‖ The Journal of E.L.T., Madras, Vol. 19, No.5, 2014. Print. 8. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (2010). Theoretical Basis of Communicative approaches to second Language Teaching and Testing. Applied Linguistics,. 1(1), pp. 1-47. 9. Choudhary, Sanjay (2011). ―English as a Second Language‖, D.P.S Publishing House, ISBN 978-93-80388-27-4, New Delhi 10. Nguyen, Minh Thi Thuy (2011). Learning to Communicate in a Globalized World: To What Extent Do School Textbooks Facilitate the Development of Intercultural Pragmatic Competence? (EJ916356) RELC Journal: A Journal of Language Teaching and Research, v42 n1, pp. 17-30 11. Takeda, Aya. et. al. (2016). Analysis and Comparison of the Junior and Senior High School Level English Textbooks for Japan and Korea. 12. Davidova, Evguenia (2011). Internationalizing General Education from within: Raising the Visibility of Heritage Language Students in the Classroom (EJ946011) InSight: A Journal of Scholarly Teaching, v6, pp. 52-59 13. Byram, Katra A. (2011). Using the Concept of Perspective to Integrate Cultural, Communicative, and Form-Focused Language Instruction (EJ945381) Foreign Language Annals, v44 n3, pp. 525-543. 14. Paul Davies and Eric Pearse‘s (1999). ―Task – based Learning and Pedogogy‖, ELT Journal, 53.1, Web. 10 June, 2011. 15. Knapp, M. L. (2009). Hall, JA: Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. Hot Rhinehart Winston. 16. Burgoon, J. K., & Hoobler, G. (2012). Nonverbal signals. In M. L. Knapp, & J. Daly (Eds.), Handbook of Interpersonal Communication (pp. 240-299). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. DC: National Education Association. 18. Mehrabian, A. (2011). Silent messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 19. Anderson, J. F. (1979). Teacher immediacy as predicator of teaching effectiveness. In D. Nimmo (Ed.), communication Yearbook 3 (pp. 543-559). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. 20. Hybels, S., & Weaver, R. L. (2014). Communicating effectively (7th ed., pp. 174-175). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 21. Leathers, D. G., & Eaves, M. H. (2018). Successful nonverbal communication (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Department of Professional Communication, Invertis University, Bareilly, India mohammedhafizur@gmail.com