A Study of Development of Gardens in Urbanization and Economy in Mughal India

INTRODUCTION

The role of gardens in urban development and the importance of urban centers in garden development illustrate the economic and socio-cultural situation of the period. The urban elites and the traders have laid out gardens that stimulated urban development. The relationship between the garden and the development date from ancient India, when the gardens formed a regular part of the palace complex for the kings and the individual buildings of courtesans of the pre-eminent. The Muslim leaders in medieval India highlighted urbanization that reflects their power-consolidation policy. Other buildings of public utility like ponds, wells, Sarais, madrasa, hospitals and gardens were constructed as well as the imperial and public buildings. Under the Mughals, the new era of urbanization began with a more stable, secure and prosperous territory for growth. Although extensive previous work on Mughal cities lacked sufficient study of gardens. Recent studies like Stephen Blake have focused on cultural and urban planning in Mughal cities, whereas Wescoat's main focus was on the City of Lahore, integrating gardens, urbanization and urbanization. His research revealed that 'the relationship between Mughal cities and gardens was dynamic and changed over the course of Mughal rule and over broader cultural change trends. Sometimes gardens were camp sites when the city was attacked, while others were at the center of the citadel's gardens. Gardens in the city centres, not just in their shape as centers of social life and recreation, they also adjusted in form, role and meaning that transformed their surroundings, played more than a significant role. In the urban centers of Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Delhi In addition to the officials, artisans, supervisors and gardeners, many people were required to maintain the large garden sites regularly. Wescoat reports that the people living near Baghbanpura,

spatial development. These areas depended for their day-to-day business and business activities on the principal town, which therefore accelerated the urbanisation process. In cities such as Shajahanabad, Lahore, Agra, Ahmadabad, and others, gardens were laid out not only within the city, but also outside the rampart, the suburbs and. The gardens were usually constructed outside the city, because military and royal encampments were one of their main uses. Population growth required the cities to expand towards the suburban garden areas. Gardens have thus drawn up a master plan for urban center development. Akbar's territorial expansion encouraged the building of gardens in the urban centres. Akbar ordered the construction of pleasant dwellings (imarat-i dilkash) and fruit gardens (basatin), in the suburb of Agra, after annexation to Mandu (1564AD). Thus Agra became so beautiful, that it was the cheeks-mole (khal-i rukhsar) of the cities, thanks to the help of trained workers who laid gardens. In the same way in 1571 AD, when Akbar was back home from Ajmer, he ordered Fatehpur Sikri to build a new city and ordered the laying of the groves and garden in the periphery and center of the city. Therefore a large number of gardens in the vicinity were arranged within a short period of time. Chaharchaman from Chandra Bhan Munshi informed that many magnificent buildings and comfortable gardens were built in every sub-town in Mughal India. Gardens became thus an important part of the big city. The main characteristics of 'city foundations' and 'garden environments' were almost identical: good communications, good weather, a healthy environment and plenty of water. The Mughals have created an artificial environment wherever the basic components are not fulfilled. Babur initiated the Riverfront in Agra, then adapted by its Lahore successors and eventually influenced Shahjahanabad more effectively (Delhi). In Ottoman Istanbul, the royal and the non-royal villas of gardens were built on the Bosporus River and the Safavid Isphahan, where gardens were built on the Zayanda River in the 17th century. The two big Muslim capitals were built on almost comparable sites. The practice in the construction of gardens, like the construction of cities, on the banks of the river was also spread to the gardens of other areas, not just too imperial gardens. Most of the Mughal Ahmadabad (Gujarat) gardens were, of course, located on the Sabarmati bank with the aim of making access to the gardens simple for water. A close relationship between the royal palace and the suburban gardens in a Deccani painting of late 17th century in Aurangabad shows the distant waterfront, which has walled gardens and private with the imperial gardens. The noble and great builders constructed their own gardens with running water and wells. But in areas of Mughal control the gardens were neither ubiquitous, nor totally absent from the suburbs. These neglected gardens played a significant role in the rich tradition of gardens, development and economics. These gardens replicate the Imperial Mughal gardens in nearly every feature. The layout of buildings within the palace complex was accurately noticed in the mansions, gardens, mosques or shops of the sovereign city of Shahjahanbad. Just as the building was used as a model in the city, the city was a model for the provinces, districts and other state subdivisions. In Mughal India, the gardens of princes, nobles, mansabdars of great standing and other social elites, such as merchants, represented imperial gardens. The suburbs of all the major cities were surrounded by the gardens of the nobles and social elites, such as the suburbs of the capital cities of Agra, Delhi and Lahore. "The city of Gardens" is known as Lahore, because there were countless gardens on the banks of Ravi, in addition to the imperial gardens. It is known as the "city of the gardens," as many green (sar-sabz) and floral (gulzar) garden are within its surroundings. Like Lahore, the gardens were threaded across almost every of the imperial Mughal cities and its banks. Many gardens on the banks of Jamuna in Akbarabad were therefore located (Agra).

The term 'Mughal' is derived from a misinterpretation of 'Mongol' (Arabic word). India's Mughals were mainly Turks rather than Mongolians. Babur (1526-30), a Central Asian leader from Turkish-Mongolian conqueror Timur, established Mughal empire in India. For over three hundred years, the Mughal dynasty ruled the Indian subcontinent. Together with the gardening style they transformed the culture of the region, leaving strong marks still seen today. The Mughal Gardens refers to a particular style of gardening created by the Mughals in Persian. The style of Persian garden had strong influence, particularly on the charbagh structure (four square squares), straight lines in walled boxes. The features include long swimming pools, canals and fountains and other garden elements. The building of these gardens was loved by the early days of the Mughal Empire (Villars-Stuart, 1913). The development of many important garden areas in India was attributed to Babur the first Mughal emperor. Humaun, his son, didn't build a good by its predecessors. Jahangir has not constructed much, but has made gardens and flowering plants much easier and loved to grow. More specifically, Shahjahan marked a flower design of the Mughal garden. In memory of his favorite Queen' Mumtaz Mahal, he built the famous 'Taj Mahal' in India. The dynasty of Central Asian origin was Mughal-indians. From 1526 to 1857, they controlled part of the Indian subcontinent. The dynasty was founded by a prince of Timur and Genghis Khan Babur (1526–30). In 1526 Babur and Delhi invaded Kabul. Babur's successor, Humayun (1530-1555), supported by the Safavid Court, was able to recover his lost territory and restore the power of the Mughal to the Subcontinent following the capture in 1545 of Kabul, and in 1555 of Delhi. The little and precarious Kingdom of Akbar (1556-1605), who inherited it, extended from Kabul to the Deccan. Son of Akbar, Jahangir (1605–27) pursued his father's politics and did not interfere mostly with state institutions. While Shah Jahan, his son, developed mostly art and architecture without worrying much about politics in his territory. His grandson, Aurangzeb, expanded Mughal territory most, but suffered a number of Hindu revolts at the same time (Anonymous, 1922 & 1939; James, 1985; Wilber, 1962; West Coat, 1996). His followers followed that pattern after Babur. While Humayun's son had no time to design gardens, his tomb was Mughal's earliest example of mausoleums. Akbar, Babur's grandson, annexed the Kashmir Valley which was unique for many dramatic water sites with its surrounding mountains, waters flowing and abundant vegetation. In Kashmir, Agra, Lahore and Fatehpur, He also erected a series of palaces. Tuzuk-I Jahangiri, memoirs from Jahangir reveal his strong interest in painting, architecture and gardens. Shah Jahan, the biggest architect, rebuilt the Palaces of Agra and Lahore and built a mausoleum at Agra, named Taj Mahal. The palaces of Agra and Lahore. With the slow increase in Islamic orthodoxy in Mughals' court, this arts interest gradually disappeared (Randhawa, 1976; Habib, 1996; Koch, 1997; Moyanihan, 1979 & 1982).

Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by Mughal Emperors in Islamic style of architecture which was influenced by Persian gardens and Timuris gardens. Significantly rectilinear designs were followed within the walled structure. The salient features are – pools, fountains, canals, change of elevation of structures and features combined with many other artifacts to make the gardens a paradise feeling (Roy, 2013; Jairazbhoy, 1958; Westcoat, 1996 & 1997). • Rectangular Pearl garden • Long Butterfly garden • Circular garden • Terraced garden

• A high surrounding wall • Straight tile-lined channels of water • Bubbling fountains • Trees for shade and fruit • A pavilion or gazebo • Strong emphasis on flowers in beds and pots

Mughal emperors developed many gardens in India and adjoining countries. A comprehensive list showing different Mughal gardens and their locations are given below as first-hand information.

01. Taj Mahal Agra, Uttar Pradesh India 02. Mehtab Bagh Agra, Uttar Pradesh India 03. Anguri Bagh Agra, Uttar Pradesh India 04. Ram Bagh Agra, Uttar Pradesh India 05. The Tomb garden of Iimad-ud-Daula Agra, Uttar Pradesh India 06. Akbar‘s Tomb garden, Sikandra Agra, Uttar Pradesh India 07. The Sultana‘s garden at Fatehpur Sikri Agra, Uttar Pradesh India 08. Khusrau Bagh Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh India 09. Deeg in the Mughal tradition Bharatpur, Rajasthan India 10. Amber (two gardens) Jaipur, Rajasthan India 11. Shah Jahan‘s pavilions and gardens Ajmer, Rajasthan India 12. Sahelion-ki- bari Udaipur, Rajasthan India 13. Lake Palace Landscape Udaipur, Rajasthan India

15. Tomb of Rabia-ud-Daurani and garden Aurangabad, Maharashtra India 16. Humanyun‘s Tomb and garden New Delhi India 17. Tomb of Safdar Jung and garden New Delhi India 18. Rashtrapati Bhavan and garden New Delhi India 19. Roshanara Garden New Delhi India 20. Yadvindara Gardens Panchukla, Haryana India 21. Shalimar Bagh Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir India 22. Nishat Bagh Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir India 23. Nasim Bagh Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir India 24. Chasma Shahi Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir India 25. Peri Mahal Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir India 26. Achabal Bagh Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir India 27. Verinag Bagh Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir India 28. Brindavan Garden Mysore, Karnataka India

29. Shalimar Gardens Lahore Pakistan 30. Tomb of Jahangir Lahore Pakistan 31. Chauburji Garden Lahore Pakistan 32. Shahdara Garden Lahore Pakistan 33. Hiran Minar garden Sheikhupura Pakistan 34. Mughal Garden Wah Wah Pakistan 35. Hazuri Bagh Lahore Pakistan 36. Hassan Abdal Rawalpindi Pakistan 37. Lal Bagh Fort, Dhaka Bangladesh 38. Bagh-e Babur Afghanistan Kabul

The top rated Mughal gardens considering structure and garden features located in different parts of India are given below. 1. Taj Mahal Garden, Agra - It has a complex of 300 sq.m. The garden adds glories to the Taj Mahal. The elevated pathways that split the each of the four quarter gardens into 16 sunken flower beds looks magnificent. The garden is made in Persian Timurid style. 2. Garden of Paradise, Agra - This garden was built by empress ‗Bega Begum‘ designed by a Persian architect. It is the first tomb garden in the Indian sub-continent and has a quadrilateral layout covering an area of 30 acres. 3. Roshanara Garden, New Delhi - It is also known as Baradari and is located in Shakti of her palace and tomb can also be found. On the other side, trees and other ornamental plants adorn the garden. 4. Yadvindra Garden, Haryana – The garden is situated in Panchkula, Haryana. This garden was made in 17th Century by Nawab Fidai Khan. This beautiful garden has a center way which is full of water and both the sides are planted with grass and beautiful flowers. It is built in the memory of Maharaja Yadvindara Singh. 5. Nishat Garden, Jammu & Kashmir – Another remarkable garden situated in Srinagar and was built in 1633. It has an amazing background of Zabarwan Mountains. Nishat Bagh (Garden of Joy) has 12 terraces which relate to 12 zodiac signs. It also has a long water canal. 6. Chashme Shahi Garden, Jammu & Kashmir - This garden is located near to Raj Bhawan (Governor‘s House) in Srinagar. This was constructed by Ali Mardan Khan who was the Mughal governor at that time. 7. Shalimar Bagh, Jammu & Kashmir -This is one of the biggest Mughal gardens in Srinagar. This garden was built by Jahangeer for his wife Noor Jahan. From this garden‘s terrace, one can clearly watch the beautiful water canal and ‗Dal Lake‘ which actually looks mesmerizing. This garden is visited by a great number of tourists every year. 8. Khusro Bagh – The garden is a situated in Khuldabad, near to Allahabad in state Uttar Pradesh and covers an area of 40 acres. It is a short walk from Akbar Fort. This garden is a perfect example of Mughal architecture. It includes the tomb of Shah Begum and Nithar Begum. 9. Brindavan Garden, Karnataka - The most beautiful Mughal Garden, located next to the Krishnarajasagara dam which is built across the Kaveri river. It is quite near to Mysore. This Mughal style garden gets a lot of attraction and every year around two million tourists visit this place. 10. The Presidential Garden, New Delhi - This garden is located at the backside of the Rashtrapati Bhavan and also known as Rashtrapati Bhavan garden. This is one of the most beautiful Mughal garden and consist of a great variety of flowers. The

Mughal gardens in Agra - Agra is an important city located in northern India about 200 km from New Delhi and known for its heritage buildings. There are three UNESCO World Heritage sites in Agra namely, The Taj mahal, The Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri. Over and above, there are many other historic buildings / tombs which were glory as the capital of Mughal Empire (Dale, 2004). Taj Mahal Garden, Agra, India – An ivory white marble monument and the fore gardens located at the south bank of the river Yamuna in city Agra, India. The ‗Crown of the Palace‘, as it means, was established by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and commissioned in 1632. The tomb was built in memory of Mumtaz Mahal, the favourite queen of the Emperor. The tomb and the garden is spread over an area of 17 hectares and is a master piece of Mughal architecture depicting rich cultural history of India. Taj Mahal was designated as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 recognizing its uniqueness. The structure incorporates and expands on Persian style and Mughal architecture (Azmee, 2016; Stirlin, 2002; Ebba, 2006; Dutemple, 2003) .[Image-2] The garden is spread over an area of about 300 sq.m. in charbagh (four square) style with raised pathways dividing four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken flower beds. The centre of the garden is raised having a water tank halfway between the tomb and gate. The water pool so positioned reflects the image of the tomb. Formal and symmetrical design of the beds and plantation is easily noticeable. Mehtab Bagh, Agra, India – The garden is located north of Taj mahal complex and the Agra Fort on the opposite of the Yamuna river. The garden complex, popularly known as ‗Moonlight Garden‘ is square in shape covering an area of 300 sq.m. The Mehtab Bagh, built by Emperor Babur (1530) was the last of eleven gardens built by Mughals in Agra. The garden was built as an integral part of Taj Mahal complex as a river front garden. White plastered walkways, airy pavilion, pools, fountains were the salient features.

Several important gardens are there which are very popular and visited by a large number of people. Humanyun‘s Tomb Garden, New Delhi, India – The garden around the tomb of the Mughal emperor Humanyun is located at Nizamuddin east of Delhi. This was built by his first wife empress Bega Begum during 1569-70 and was first garden tomb in Indian subcontinent. The tomb was much precise Mughal architecture than the old ones and the garden in Tomb Garden of Safdar Jung, New Delhi, India – The tomb is a sand stone and marble structure in typical Mughal style built in 1754 by emperor Safdarjung. The garden surrounding the tomb was enclosed by long walls on each side. The style was four square with wide footpath and water tanks finally further subdivided into smaller squares. It contained four pavilions with multiple chambers and entrance gateway in an impressive way. The pavilions were located in the western, northern and southern directions and named as ‗Jungli Mahal‘ (Forest Palace), ‗Moti Palace‘ (Pearl Palace) and ‗Badshah Pasand‘ (King‘s Favourite). Rashtrapati Bhavan Gardens, New Delhi, India – The presidential residence is commonly called as ‗Rashtrapati Bhavan‘ which was previously the ‗House of Viceroy‘ in British era. The estate comprised of exceptionally very huge area which is around 130 hectares. This includes official residence of President, reception hall, guest room, offices etc. besides a huge presidential garden in Mughal style. The garden is at the back of the rashtrapati bhawan, a moghul garden which is essentially combined with a floral flower bed in the English style. The main garden has two north-south channels, and two east-western channels. Therefore, split the garden into places. Each channel crossing has a lotus-shaped fountain. Six of these fountains exist. The calm waters of the canals improve calmness. On each side of the main garden at a higher level there are two longitudinal lanes in the form of a terrace garden. On both sides of the pavement on the west side of the main garden, the Long Gardens houses the Rose Garden surrounded by walls. The circular garden in the shape of floral beds around the central fountain and a change in bed levels give the winter a most splendid view. In February-March every year, a scenic beauty comes from all kind of floral seasonals on beds with topie trees and potted plants. In addition, special gardens are also available, such as Herbal Gardens, Rose Garden and Tactile Garden. In late winter, the garden is open only for a short time to the public.

Kashmir was predominantly a Hindu region, before the advent of Islam and its invasion in that region. The concept of pleasure garden was very much there but mainly in the form of orchard. However, plenty of flowers, herbaceous plants including aromatic ones were grown as a part of fruit garden and served as ornamental gardens. One such prominent garden was ‗Bagh-i-Tut‘ (The Mulberry Garden) which was developed by a Hindu saint.

Muslims came to Kashmir in the 14th century and complete transformation took place with regard to language, dress, and culture, heavily influenced by Persian culture including the gardening style. Later, Kashmir was developed as summer resort of Mughal emperors. They were very fond of flowering plants and gardens. As a result, many legendary pleasure gardens were established, viz. ‗Shalimar Bagh‘, Nishat Bagh‘, ‗Nasim Bagh‘, ‗Chasma Shahi‘, ‗Peri Mahal‘, ‗Achabal Bag‘, ‗Verinag‘ etc. Brief details of the garden are given below. Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar – The garden name Shalimar is after the village where it was developed. The initiation of the garden development (lower part) was done by Emperor Jahangir around 1620 later overseen by Emperor Shah Jahan. Like other Mughal gardens, this garden was also developed following char bagh (four square) style. The garden measures about 150,000 sq.m. Comprising of five main terraces that make up two and half char bagh. The entire garden area was divided into two parts to suit the royal requirement. The lower portion, which comprised first three terraces, was the ‗Diwan-i-Aam‘ (‗Pink Pavilion‘ for common people) for holding public meeting. The upper two were exclusively for the use of Emperor and his courtiers and known as ‗Dewan-i- Khas‘ (‗Black Pavilion‘ for Special people). Thick masonry wall screened these two parts with two similar gateways at each side of the water channel. The magnificent quality of ‗Shalimar Bagh‘ is the blending of architectural structures and landscape. Moreover, the surroundings and mountain backdrop creates a scenic beauty and signify the royalty of the garden. Nishat Bagh, Srinagar –This ‗Garden of Delight‘ is a terraced Mughal garden situated on the east side of the Dal lake with the Zabarwan Mountain as its backdrop. The garden is second largest (19 hectares) Mughal garden in Srinagar after Shalimar bagh and was built in 1633 by Asif Khan. The gardens is broad cascade of terraces lined with avenues of ‗Chinar‘ (Platanus orientalis) and ‗Cypress Trees‘ (Cupressus cashmeriana) starting from lakeshore and reaches up to an artificial façade at the hill end. It has twelve terraces representing twelve zodiacal signs and two sections – Public garden and Private garden (for females) in contrary four sections of Shalimar Bagh. There is a central canal running through the garden from the top end having a width of 4 m and depth 0.2 m. The water flows from one terrace to other. There are altogether 12 terraces. ‗Nishat Bagh‘ is one of the beautiful gardens of Kashmir. There are other Mughal gardens also viz. Nasim Bagh, Chasma Shahi, Peri Mahal, Achabal Bag, Verinag.

Gardens in Mughal India synthesized both society and State's esthetic, symbolic and functional needs. The Paradise, to put themselves above their subjects. Therefore, the royal Mughal Gardens may be seen as a symbol of the kingship, reflecting the kingdom and territorial control, as well as its metaphysical conceptual aspect. The gardens were also a symbol of efficiently administered territory, an emblem for the victory of the Ruler, as well as for rulers and officials, foreign messengers and dignitary officials. Often gardens were used to hold courts and to dispense justice as a policy and administrative space. In summary, the gardens acted as a political arena, which included both power rituals and resource control. On the basis of epigraphical and literary evidence which indicates the extent of the spread of the garden, it is understanded the role of gardens in the appearance of the empires. Although the gardens were full of the Mughal Empire, Ganga-Jamuna plains, which surrounded Delhi, Agra, Awadh, Allahabad, Bihar and Bengal, and the eastern part of Rajasthan, were central to garden construction. Cashmir and Punjab had countless gardens in the northern parts of the empire. Gujarat had countless gardens mainly concentrated on Ahmadabad, Cambay and Surat in the Western region. Almost all imperial cities and river banks are known to have threaded imperial gardens. However, in other Mughal India towns, the nobles and other social elites had built gardens and had not made a lot of contribution to the tradition of garden building, although they didn't make such a difference to the Shalimar or to the Taj Mahal. In Subas in Bihar and Bengal, in Patna, Hajipur, Maner, Rohtas, Munger, Dhaka, etc., there are many gardens. Lahore was known as the 'town of gardens,' since there were countless parks built on the bank of the Ravi apart from the imperial gardens. Ahmadabad was also referred to as "the gardens city" next to Lahore. The area where the gards of Abdul Ghafur, Shantidas Zaveri, Rustam Manak Parsi and Kissendas were situated was Gujarat. It was one of the most beautiful gardens of all. These gardens have been used by both the officers of the Mughal and foreign envoys, which show the political influence of Gujarat's merchants. The favorable climate and water forced Mughals to move the activity of the garden building from the Agra, Delhi and Lahore plains towards Cashmir. Tarikh-i Hasan's author listed sixty one Mughal gardens, noting only that those were well-known gardens. There were countless gardens on the banks of the Jhelum and Dal Lake rivers. The Mughals retained the traditions that Babur started and touched their cenit sous Shah Jahan, which was the symmetrical garden of chaharbag building. However, in all the gardens, the pattern of chaharbagh was not always symmetrical. This view is archeologically supported by the irregular designs irregular arrangement. In Mughal India, the dynamic aspects of the gardens were their strong 'relationship' and 'interconnection' with structures, hydraulics, economy, management, socio-cultural experiences, political and horticultural events.

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Research Scholar, Department of History, CMJ University, Jorabat, Ri-Bhoi District, Meghalaya