Goal 4 of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and India’s Education Policy: A Comparison
 
Awnish Murari*
Research Scholar, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Email :- awnismurari@gmail.com
Abstract - Education and literacy serve as crucial benchmarks for a society, significantly contributing to the socio-economic progress of an entire nation. Recognizing education as the cornerstone of human resource development, the Government of India’s New Education Policy (NEP) has undergone a consultative process. In order to adapt to the evolving needs of quality education, innovation, and research in today’s world, NEP strives to transform India into a center of knowledge by providing students with skill enhancement and advancement opportunities, including ICT and vocational training.
India has made remarkable strides in implementing the Education for All initiative. Various key programs and policies have been launched to ensure that all children between the ages of six and fourteen have access to free and compulsory education as a Fundamental Right. Initiatives like Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) and Right to Education (RTE) have played a crucial role in boosting the education system in India. While there has been a significant improvement in primary education enrollment rates nationwide, there are still challenges that need to be tackled. This paper primarily focuses on the current strategies adopted by India to align with Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the Indian context, by incorporating them into the development of the New Education Policy and its positive impact on achieving quality education, as highlighted in SDG 4. It also delves into the education achievements at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels in India, as well as the major obstacles hindering quality education and accessibility in the education sector.
Keywords: India, SDGs, Quality Education, Access, Equity, Inclusion
BACKGROUND
Education and literacy serve as crucial benchmarks for a society, as they significantly contribute to the overall socio-economic progress of a nation. Recognizing the pivotal role of education in human resource development, the Government of India is currently in the process of finalizing the New Education Policy (NEP) through a consultative approach. In order to adapt to the evolving demands of the contemporary world, particularly in terms of ensuring high-quality education, fostering innovation, and promoting research, the NEP aims to transform India into a center of knowledge. This objective will be achieved by equipping students with essential skills, including proficiency in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and vocational training.
India has made significant strides in its efforts to achieve Education for all. The country has implemented various programs and policies, as mandated by the Constitution, to ensure that free and compulsory education is provided to all children between the ages of six and fourteen. Initiatives like the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) and the Right to Education (RTE) have played a crucial role in strengthening the education system in India. These initiatives have led to a notable increase in enrolment rates in primary education across the nation.
However, despite these achievements, there remains a pressing challenge in terms of ensuring quality education and improving learning outcomes. The SSA has aimed to universalize elementary education, catering to both out-of-school children and those who were forced to drop out before completing primary grades due to social and economic reasons. In line with this objective, the Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-17) has emphasized the expansion of educational opportunities, enhancing quality, and promoting equal access to education for all sections of society. In comparison to the aging populations observed in many countries, India possesses a distinct advantage with its youthful population, with an average age of 29 years. This demographic dividend can be effectively harnessed through investments in health, education, and skill development.
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), established in 2000, encompassed a comprehensive set of eight global objectives addressing various aspects of development, such as poverty reduction, healthcare, education, gender equality, and environmental sustainability. These goals aimed to foster a global partnership for development. It is noteworthy that many of these goals are embedded within the newly adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. While significant strides have been made in achieving universal primary education, there is still much work to be done. In September 2015, during the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit, over 150 world leaders embraced the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals. This agenda represents a collective agreement among governments and includes seventeen goals and 169 targets that pertain to sustainable development issues.
Education is undoubtedly the most crucial element for achieving sustainable development among all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The seventeen goals SDGs encompass a comprehensive and ambitious agenda “no one is left behind”, with a particular emphasis on ensuring inclusivity for all individuals worldwide. These goals strive to eradicate poverty, eliminate hunger, enhance education and healthcare provisions, promote gender equality, ensure access to clean water, sanitation, and energy, and combat climate change within a specified timeframe.
In relation to education matters (Goal 4), the significance of inclusive and fair quality education for everyone is widely recognized as the fundamental driver of societal advancement across nations. It has been unanimously acknowledged that collaborative endeavours in exchanging valuable knowledge and proficiency in various domains, including universal access to education, higher and vocational education, and flexible learning through distance education, with a particular focus on maintaining high standards and promoting gender equality, are imperative. As a participant in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), India has pledged to guarantee inclusive and high-quality education for all children by the year 2030.
Targets of Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals on Education:
India’s aim on ensure Quality, Access, Equity and Inclusion (QAEI) similar as SDGs Goal 4
India’s economic development planning since 1960 has placed significant importance on all seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including the eradication of poverty, zero hunger, health, education, and clean energy. Recognizing the interconnectedness of these goals, it is crucial to implement them in a holistic manner, ensuring quality, access, equity, and inclusion at all levels of formal education. Goal 4 specifically focuses on various targets such as early childhood development and care, pre-primary education, learning outcomes, gender equality, and vocational skills. Rather than solely focusing on enrollment rates, attendance, or syllabus completion, the emphasis lies on the quality and inclusivity of education. This reaffirms the belief that education is a powerful and proven catalyst for sustainable development.
In order for India to successfully achieve all the targets outlined in Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) within a 15-year timeframe, the Quality, Accessibility, Equity, and Inclusion (QAEI) initiatives present a crucial opportunity. These initiatives serve as pre-requisites for ensuring the quality and accessibility of education for India’s young population, enabling them to attain a minimum proficiency level in reading and writing. Additionally, these initiatives aim to equip them with the necessary skills to become a productive and skilled workforce, contributing to the growth and development of a resurgent India.
It is important to note that even before the adoption of the SDGs, India had already implemented a series of programs and policies focused on enhancing the quality and inclusiveness of education. Constitutionally, several key initiatives have been introduced to provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of six and fourteen, recognizing it as a Fundamental Right. The Ministry of Human Resource Development operates through two departments: the Department of School Education and Literacy, responsible for universalizing elementary education, and the Department of Higher Education, dedicated to establishing world-class higher learning institutions.
In India, the school education program consists of four stages, with pre-primary education not being formally included in the education structure. These efforts reflect India’s commitment to ensuring that every child has access to quality education, laying the foundation for their future success and contributing to the overall development of the nation.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) is an endeavor that aims to ensure inclusive elementary education for all individuals. It also mandates that 25 percent of seats in private schools be reserved for children belonging to economically weaker sections (EWS) of society. In order to provide equal opportunities to all segments of society, including gender, SC/ST, minorities, migrants, out of school children, and children with special needs, it is imperative for the government to play a significant role in promoting education for inclusion.
Education development has been given significant importance in successive development policies and Five-Year national development plans. In order to increase enrollment, retention, and attendance rates, as well as improve the nutritional levels of children, the Centrally assisted National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education was introduced on August 15, 1995. This program, commonly known as the Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDM), ensures that a hot cooked nutritious meal is provided to every child studying in classes I to VIII on a daily basis, excluding holidays. Currently, India boasts the world’s largest Mid-day Meal scheme, catering to the nutritional needs of 10 crore students in 11.5 lakh schools. The participation of mothers in the Mid-Day Meal (MDM) program has resulted in notable advancements in cooking and hygiene practices, as well as a reduction in teachers’ absenteeism. Likewise, the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) initiative, known as the “Education for All Movement,” has been modified to guarantee that every child between the ages of 6 and 14 receives free and compulsory education. To enhance teacher availability, the SSA has allocated a significant amount of funds towards the recruitment of extra teachers in government schools.
However, the primary challenge lies in providing high-quality education to children at the elementary level. As a result, the government has made it a top priority to redirect the SSA program towards enhancing the quality of education. In order to tackle the issue of education quality, a meeting of the Central Advisory Board for Education (CABE) in 2016 identified specific action points. These included the rationalization of teacher deployment, implementing mechanisms to ensure teacher accountability, consolidating low enrollment schools, and utilizing technology for effective monitoring, among other measures. Additionally, the Department of School Education and Niti Aayog, in collaboration with all states and union territories, have been working together to develop a School Education Quality Index (SEQI). The aim of this index is to institutionalize a focus on improving education outcomes such as learning, access, and equity. The SEQI launched in 2017, further emphasized the government’s commitment to enhancing the quality of school education in India.
The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) is currently developing a Shagun Portal consisting of two components to effectively monitor the implementation of the SSA. The first component is the Repository of Best Practices, which includes a collection of photographs, videos, studies, and newspaper articles related to elementary education. This platform aims to foster a competitive spirit among stakeholders and facilitate the sharing of success stories for mutual learning. The second component focuses on online monitoring of the SSA, specifically by the government officers at various levels such as the Department, PMO, and Niti Aayog. This monitoring system will enable these officers to assess the implementation of the SSA and the state of elementary education in all States and Union Territories (UTs).
It is imperative for India to implement a mandatory one-year pre-school education program for all children in primary schools. In order to ensure the retention of students, it is crucial to address the issue of teacher attendance and provide separate water and sanitation facilities for boys and girls in schools. By incorporating the goals set by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into its long-term development plans, India can effectively meet the requirements of these objectives. Given the demographic dividend, it is essential for India to take prompt action in this regard.
Nevertheless, as part of the “Transforming India” initiative, the Government of India has undertaken numerous flagship programs aimed at revolutionizing the education sector with the objective of providing “Education for All, Quality Education”. The subsequent segment will shed light on a few of the flagship programs implemented by India to ensure the attainment of quality education, which is a fundamental requirement for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4.
Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat (PBBB) is a nationwide initiative under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) that aims to enhance the quality of education during the foundational years of schooling, specifically in classes I and II. These early years are crucial for the development of essential skills such as reading, writing with comprehension, and mathematics. It is imperative to ensure that children acquire these skills during this period, as failure to do so may result in falling behind and facing difficulties in learning other subjects.
PBBB adopts a dual approach to achieve its objectives. The first track, Early Reading and Writing with Comprehension (ERWC), focuses on improving language development by fostering a lasting interest in reading and writing with comprehension. This track aims to equip children with the necessary tools to effectively communicate and comprehend written information. The second track, Early Mathematics (EM), aims to cultivate a natural and positive interest in mathematics that is relevant to the physical and social world. By engaging children in meaningful mathematical activities, PBBB seeks to develop their mathematical thinking and problem-solving skills from an early age. Through the implementation of PBBB, the SSA endeavors to lay a strong foundation for children’s education, ensuring that they acquire essential skills in reading, writing, and mathematics during their early years of schooling. By focusing on these fundamental areas, PBBB aims to empower children with the necessary tools for lifelong learning and success.
The National Reading Initiative Programme was introduced in the academic year 2015-16 as a continuation of the foundational programme. Its primary objective was to cultivate and encourage the practice of reading among elementary school students, thereby extending the reach of the programme up to class VIII. In order to facilitate the implementation of innovative activities aimed at promoting reading, states were allocated token funds. The allocated funds for the year 2015-16 amounted to Rs 525 crores, which marked an increase from the previous year’s allocation of Rs 456 crores. Notably, 15 states have already reported the appointment of dedicated teachers for classes I and II. Furthermore, several states and union territories have undertaken specific interventions such as Activity Based Learning (ABL) in Tamil Nadu, Nalli Kali in Karnataka, and Pragya in Gujarat. These interventions aim to develop specialized teacher training modules for educators teaching students in classes I and II. Additionally, Punjab, Meghalaya, and Delhi have introduced programs to enhance the teaching of mathematics in classes I and II, while schools in Sikkim have established reading corners for foundational classes with the support of community members.
The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (BBBP) initiative, which translates to “Save Girl Child, Educate Girl Child”, is a prominent and ambitious program introduced by the Government of India in 2015. Its primary objective is to tackle the issue of declining Child Sex Ratio (CSR) in 100 gender-critical districts across all States and Union Territories (UTs). As a pilot project, at least one district from each state was included. The program was initiated with an initial fund of Rs 100 crore. This initiative is a collaborative effort involving the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MoWCD), the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW), and the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) with the aim of enhancing CSR and uplifting the status of girl children.
The primary goal of BBBP is to combat gender-based sex selective elimination, safeguard the well-being and security of female children, and promote their education. This endeavor is carried out through two key components. Firstly, a nationwide mass communication campaign is undertaken to ensure that girls are given equal opportunities from birth, receive proper care and education, and ultimately become empowered individuals who contribute to the progress of India. Secondly, targeted multi-sectoral measures are implemented in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) and the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) to guarantee the survival, protection, and education of the girl child.
The Rashtriya Avishkar Abhiyan (RAA) was introduced in 2015 with the aim of enhancing the learning of mathematics and science in upper primary classes. Its primary objective is to motivate and inspire children between the ages of 6 and 18 to develop an interest in science, mathematics, and technology. This initiative follows a two-pronged approach, focusing on both systemic improvements in the school system and the implementation of alternative strategies to promote science and mathematics. In certain states, educational institutions such as IITs, IISERs, and NITs have taken up the responsibility of mentoring schools, while students are provided with opportunities to visit factories and research hubs to gain exposure. Additionally, science and mathematics clubs have been established in schools, allowing students to participate in competitions and exhibitions to showcase their innovative ideas in the fields of science, mathematics, and technology.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) - Within the Digital Initiative holds immense promise in revolutionizing the education of students, enhancing the skills and knowledge of teachers and educators, and offering effective solutions to address the existing challenges within the Indian education system. In 2015, the Government of India embarked on various initiatives aimed at implementing ICT-based strategies to promote efficient governance within the school system. These initiatives encompass a range of measures and approaches designed to improve the overall quality and effectiveness of education in India.
Saransh, an endeavor by CBSE, aims to provide schools with an online self-review tool. This tool enables schools to identify areas of improvement in students, teachers, and curriculum. By comparing results, schools can take necessary measures to implement changes and make informed decisions. Specifically designed for classes IX-XII, Saransh offers an analysis of results in relation to other schools, allowing for actionable decisions to be taken.
Shaala Siddhi introduced by The National University of Educational and Planning Administration (NUEPA), an initiative that seeks to empower schools to assess their own performance and track their strengths and areas for improvement. This initiative is applicable to both elementary and secondary schools. The primary goal of Shaala Siddhi is to establish a standardized set of criteria and benchmarks for each school, focusing on key performance areas and their corresponding standards. Currently, approximately 9000 schools across 25 states and Union Territories have implemented Shaala Siddhi. In a departure from the previous practice of conducting the National Achievement Survey once every three years, it will now be conducted annually starting from 2017.
Shala Darpan aims to offer School Management Systems-based services to students, parents, and communities. Within the realm of school information services, various features such as school and student profile management, employee information, student attendance tracking, leave management, report cards, customizable curriculum, and SMS alerts for parents and administrators regarding student and teacher attendance have been implemented.
e-Pathshala serves as a digital platform that aims to exhibit and distribute a wide range of educational materials, including textbooks, audio and video resources, periodicals, and various print and non-print materials. This online platform caters to the needs of different stakeholders such as students, teachers, educators, researchers, and parents, providing them with access to a diverse array of digital resources.
Aadhar Link - The Aadhar program has been extended to include all school-going children between the ages of 5 and 18 in the country. This initiative aims to track and monitor the dropout rate among children, as well as their academic performance. Additionally, it ensures that they receive the benefits entitled to them through various centrally sponsored schemes, either in cash or kind. Currently, out of the total enrolment of 26.07 crore children in this age group, 23.24 crore children have already been covered under Aadhar. Furthermore, in order to prevent the presence of fake teachers in schools, all teachers in the states and union territories are also required to have an Aadhar card. As an additional measure, the government and aided school teachers’ photographs are displayed on the school notice board according to their respective grades. This enables students and their parents to easily identify the regular teachers and discourages the practice of proxy teachers.
The Swachh Vidyalaya initiative, introduced by the Government as part of the Swachh Bharat Mission, aims to ensure the provision of separate toilets for both girls and boys in all government schools by the deadline of 15th August 2015. This objective was successfully accomplished, with the States and Union Territories reporting the construction or functionalization of 4,17,796 toilet blocks in 2,61,400 schools within the specified timeframe.
In addition to the recent policy initiatives undertaken by the government to enhance the quality of education, several exemplary practices have been implemented in various states by the state government, which can be replicated in other states as well.
Mukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojana – Bihar
Over the last few years, Bihar State has witnessed a significant increase in the number of students, particularly girls, dropping out of school. To address this issue and promote higher retention rates among girls, the Chief Minister of Bihar introduced the Mukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojana. This initiative entails providing a bicycle or a sum of Rs. 2000 to every girl enrolled in class IX and X in Bihar, enabling them to commute to school. The implementation of this program has not only resulted in an improvement in school enrolment among girls but has also led to a substantial reduction in dropout rates.
Migration Card and Migration Monitoring Software - Gujarat
The phenomenon of seasonal employment migration plays a significant role in the high dropout rates among students. In order to address this issue, the Migration Card initiative was implemented in Gujarat in 2001. This initiative aims to effectively monitor and track the movement of students and their parents when they migrate from one region, district, or state to another. By doing so, the program strives to enhance student retention and reduce the dropout rate in Gujarat. Under the Migration Card Initiative, children who migrate within the state are accommodated in seasonal hostels located in their respective domiciles. On the other hand, children who migrate across state borders are enrolled in Tent-Special training Programmes (Tent STPs). These temporary schools are established at the worksites where their parents are employed. This approach ensures that both intra-state and inter-state migrant children receive educational support and opportunities to continue their studies, thereby mitigating the negative impact of seasonal employment migration on their education.
Pota Cabins – Residential Schools for Children in Left Wing Extremism (LWE) affected areas
An innovative educational endeavour has been implemented in Chhattisgarh, aiming to construct schools using temporary materials such as bamboo and plywood. Since its inception in 2011, this initiative has effectively contributed to the reduction of out-of-school children and has significantly enhanced the enrolment and retention rates among students.
Pratibha Parv – Strengthening Quality of Education in Government Schools
The Pratibha Parv festival, which was launched by the School Education Department of the Government of Madhya Pradesh in 2011, is a comprehensive program aimed at evaluating the quality of teaching and learning as well as assessing educational facilities and activities. This initiative has proven to be highly effective in improving primary school attendance rates, which increased from 71 to 78 percent between 2011 and 2013. Additionally, it has also led to an increase in middle school attendance from 79 to 84 percent, while simultaneously reducing students’ anxiety towards traditional classroom examinations. Remarkably, this initiative has reached an impressive number of approximately 100,000,000 students across 112,788 schools.
Saakshar Bharat – Sustaining and Enhancing Efforts in Adult Education
This program has effectively provided avenues for lifelong learning by expanding educational choices for adults who have either discontinued or never pursued formal education. By focusing on fundamental literacy, post-literacy, and ongoing education, this initiative promotes a seamless approach to adult education rather than dividing it into separate segments. The enrolment in the program has witnessed a significant rise, increasing from approximately 1.5 million to over 4.5 million between the years 2010-11 and 2012-13.
“Each One Teach One Method” – Mizoram
Mizoram, one of the states where education was initially introduced and popularized by the British, currently holds the top position in India with a literacy rate of 91.1 percent. The state achieved remarkable progress after adopting the “each one, teach one” approach in the post-1990 era. This method involved a systematic endeavour to identify illiterate individuals residing in remote villages. Once these villages were identified, a team of volunteers known as animators was appointed, and village adult education committees were established to supervise the entire project. The implementation of this approach ensured the active participation of a diverse range of individuals and organizations, including village councils, church bodies, teachers, and social workers. The Mizoram government formulated a comprehensive plan aimed at achieving universal literacy. Each facilitator was assigned the responsibility of instructing five individuals simultaneously. To encourage their efforts, facilitators were provided with designated teaching and learning materials at no cost, along with a hurricane lantern and kerosene oil to facilitate teaching sessions even after sunset. Undoubtedly, this method has yielded positive results. Presently, Mizoram stands as a highly literate state, with the exception of the Chakma and Reang minority populations who, unlike their Mizo counterparts, display less enthusiasm in their pursuit of literacy.
Reaching to out of School children – Himachal Pradesh
The state government has taken a proactive approach by deploying teachers who accompany and reside with nomadic communities in the mountains to educate their children. The state has made significant investments in providing primary education in sparsely populated regions like Lahaul and Spiti, where traditional schools cater to a very limited number of students, resulting in small-sized classrooms. Consequently, the pupil-teacher ratio in this district is remarkably low. As of 2006, there were a total of 204 primary schools serving 2,594 children, along with 63 upper primary schools accommodating 1,475 children. Remarkably, there are no children in this district who are out of school, indicating the state’s commitment to ensuring universal access to education.
CONCLUSION
Education is an expansive field, and in the 21st century, India is making significant progress through its innovative flagship programs to achieve the Quality, Access, Equity, and Inclusion (QAEI) factor in attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) on education within a specified timeframe. In order to ensure that no individual is left behind, as emphasized by the SDG, it is imperative to establish adequate physical infrastructure and create safe and inclusive environments that foster learning outcomes for all, irrespective of gender, background, or disability status. Despite the existence of numerous flagship programs, their effective implementation and monitoring are crucial for yielding better outcomes. Given the substantial number and diversity of these programs, it is more justifiable to enhance the existing ones rather than initiating new flagship programs, as this approach would lead to more effective implementation. The lack of proper coordination among various programs and the organizations or ministries involved in achieving the common goal has been identified as a primary cause for duplication of efforts, wastage of time and financial resources, loss of synergies, and ineffective division of labor, all of which ultimately contribute to subpar learning outcomes.
The SDGs agenda demonstrates a well-balanced approach in addressing the importance of both quality education and decent productive jobs. It recognizes the potential for regional cooperation in South Asia, as the sharing of best practices among neighboring areas can effectively address challenges that span different domains. As mentioned earlier, all the goals within the SDGs framework are interconnected, emphasizing the need to involve all relevant stakeholders in order to achieve these goals. It is crucial to coordinate the plans of both the State and Centre to ensure equal opportunities in education outcomes, while also prioritizing investments in quality learning and the significance of technical and vocational training within the education sector. Allocating sufficient funds to the education sector in India is a fundamental prerequisite for enhancing access, quality, and learning outcomes, as well as ensuring the safety and security of all children.
REFERENCES
  1. Banerji, Rukmini (2016), “Teaching “toppers” or Learning for All? ASER 2016-Rural”, ACER Centre, New Delhi.
  2. Dreze Jean and Sen Amartya (2002), India Development and Participation, Oxford University: Oxford University Press.
  3. Duraisamy, P. (2002), “Changes in Returns to Education in India, 1983–94: By Gender, Age-cohort and Location”, Economics of Education Review, 21 (1): 609-22.
  4. Govinda, R. (2002), India Education Report: A Profile of Basic Education, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  5. Hoque, Nurzamal and Ratul, Mahanta. (2020), “Gender Gaps in Elementary Education in India in the post Right to Education Act Period: Implications for Policy”, Space and Culture, India, 8 (2): 117-28. http://dx.doi.org/10.20896/saci.v8i2.841.
  6. Jat, Ramavtar and Puneet, Gautam. (2022), “Issues and Challenges of School Education: An Indian Scenario”, Journal of Global Resources, 8 (2): 116-19.
  7. Juneja, N. (2010), Access to what? Access, diversity and participation in India’s schools, United Kingdom: University of Sussex.
  8. Sridevi, K.V. and Nagpal, Mohini. (2020), “Trends in School Dropout Rate in India”, Researchers' Guild, 2 (1): 2-24.
  9. Kaur, Navdeep. (2014), “Awareness of Right to Education among Secondary School Teachers”, Journal of Social Science Research, 6 (2):1004-8.
  10. Kingdon, Geeta Gandhi (2007), “The Progress of School Education in India”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 23 (2): 168-195.
  11. __________ Cassen, R., McNay, K., and Visaria, L. (2004), “Education and Literacy”, in T. Dyson, R. Cassen, and L. Visaria (eds.), Twenty-first Century India-Population, Economy, Human Development and the Environment, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  12. Kumari, Rakhi, Patel, H. B.  Lakshmi, Y. Vijaya  and Pal, Ajay. (2023), “A SWOT Analysis of E-Learning for Digital Education”, [Online: Web] Accessed 10 Feb. 2024 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.55529/ijitc.33.23.29.
  13. Malhotra, Smitu, and Venugopal Pingali. (2019), “Rural immersion program in India: integrating management education with community”, Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 34 (2): 13-15.
  14. Malvankar, Alka. (2018), “Elementary School Education and the Right to Education Act, 2009”, Sociological Bulletin, 67 (2): 220-35.
  15. Mandal, Ranjit Kumar. (2021), “India Foundation for Education Transformation: It’s Service to the Society”, Journal of Advanced Research in English and Education, 5 (3): 9-11.
  16. Mehta, Arun C. (2006), “Elementary Education in India: Where do We Stand? State Report Cards”, NUEPA, New Delhi.
  17. National University of Educational Planning and Administration (2007), DISE (2006-07) Elementary Education in India: Progress towards UEE, Government of India, New Delhi
  18. __________ (2014), Education for All- Towards Quality with Equity: India, Ministry of Human Resource and Development, New Delhi.
  19. Planning Commission (2013), Twelfth Five Year Plan 2012-2017 Social Sector, Government of India: New Delhi.
  20. R. Solai Raja, S. Banumathi, and T. Dhanabalan. (2011), “Primary School Education in India: An Overview”, Indian Journal of Applied Research, 3 (50): 439-40.
  21. Thapa, Rukmini, and Kaustav Kanti Sarkar. (2019), “Universal Elementary Education in India: Barriers and Persistent Challenges”, Social Change, 49 (2):257-75.
  22. Ullah, Athar. (2023), “Education Voucher Scheme in India: Would Lead to School Choice and Universal Education?” Journal of International Education and Practice, 6 (1): 27.
  23. United Nations Development Programs (2015), Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030), United Nation.
  24. __________ (2015), Good Practices Resource Book- Social Sector Service Delivery, Niti Aayog, GoI: New Delhi