A Review on Value Education at Higher Education in Africa

At start of new millennium, African higher education (HE) faces unprecedented challenges. Not only is demand for access unstoppable, particularly in context of traditionally low levels of post-secondary attendance in Africa, but higher education is recognized as a key force for modernization & development. In order to advance the continent, African academic institutions face obstacles in providing education, research and service they need. It is difficult to generalize about continent as vast & diverse as Africa. Yet there are some common elements–and some common challenges certainly exist. In our discussion, either analyzing current reality in much of Africa or pointing to future prospects, we are generally not optimistic. The truth is that African universities are currently operating in very difficult circumstances, both in terms of the continent's cultural, economic and political challenges and in the sense of globalization, and it will not be an easy road to future success. Looks at the need for quality education to drive the continent of Africa into the future. In light of future demands, the theory and industrial needs are addressed. Changing current educational practices and forcing future economic demand trends are emphasized. This essay is based on assumption that a nation struggling to overcome a broken moral landscape has a lot to offer to value education. The article focuses on values & values education in context of education in South Africa (SA), pursuing a modest agenda. They suggest that discussions about what establishes training in qualities and qualities present significant philosophical and educational inquiries concerning what esteems are and what esteems ought to be organized. We contend that instruction in qualities is probably not going to meet the desires for Constitution of SA and its national school educational plan expectations in any huge manner except if it depends on applied explanation of what esteems are in connection to the job that training esteems are relied upon to satisfy in schools of South Africa. Almost every statute has exemptions. For example, by ignoring the non-university sector, we sometimes underestimate the extent of post-secondary education. Zambia has only two universities, but it also has about fifty colleges of "additional education." The differentiation between universities and colleges, regardless of their size or study program, is based on how they are viewed at the local level. The overall trend of the state & higher education in Northern Africa is significantly different from the rest of sub-Saharan Africa. Even in sub-Saharan Africa, many countries like Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa are not falling completely well in no. of generalizations we

and realities vary greatly. However, generalizations can be made, and it is significant to understand the broader themes that shape the realities of African HE at beginning of 21st century. A particularly difficult reality is the overall reality of insufficient financial resources combined with increased demand for access, legacy of colonialism, long-standing economic and social problems in many nations, the challenges of HIV / AIDS in parts of the continent, and other major issues. Our goal here is to supply specific profile of African HE realities as a context for further study and future reform. Students from South African universities do so in terms of: education, age, class, & financial & other resources from extreme inequality backgrounds. Values education It is commonly understood that umbrella term "values education" places particular emphasis on civic & moral values. Therefore, quality education is closely aligned with other concepts widely used in literature, including religious, ethical, social and cultural advancement. Lickona and Halstead & Taylor are referring to character education, virtue education, and attitudes & personal qualities development. UK literature on education principles primarily refers to "education of values, education of character, moral education, personal & social education, & education of citizenship." Munn & Halstead & Taylor show that academic publications mostly refer to' moral education' in the United Kingdom, while McLaughlin points out that term ' civic education' is commonly used in European literature. The umbrella term ' values education' appears to be able to be utilized interchangeably with other terms as it could refer to human rights education, citizenship education, active citizenship & moral education, that have attention to attitudes & dispositions. Kohlberg's understanding of values as "making moral decisions and acting in accordance with them" underlines the connection between decision-making and agency. Although values education in most countries seems to be conceptualized in terms of civics and citizenship education, SA faces unique challenges in terms of the conceptualization of citizenship education. The Constitution's purpose is to encourage SA to transcend racial divisions & exclusionary principles inherited from apartheid. Education for citizenship should offer for people to create common citizenship for all based on respect for human dignity. In response to this aim, we are now exploring how citizenship education in SA is conceptualized. Values priorities in education Kohlberg sees moral development as part of a process of maturation which can be encouraged, but rejects the idea that education in values can consist of a moral agenda provided to educators that sets out lists of values to be learned without due consideration of the level of moral development reached by the learners. Rorty reminds us that we should not lose sight of the fact that education involves two stages or processes that are distinct but equally necessary: socialization and critical individualization. For Rorty, understanding the intent and essence of these processes includes the issue of the stage at which a critical inclination to values education as socialization or critical individualization should be established. Socialization' refers in everyday parlance to a continuous process by which a person acquires the norms, beliefs, attitudes and social skills of their society. The aim of this process is to deliberately replicate socially and culturally, that is, to induce the norms, beliefs, customs and traditions that this society values. Dewey sees socialization as a process of shaping an' animal' into a human being, followed by that human being's self-individualization and self-creation through his later revolt against that very process and questioning it. Balibar insists that the school has a specific' place of change' between private and public life in support of Dewey's position. He claims that one of schooling's duties is to train students to join the citizenship public sphere. It involves a process of adjusting their primary identity as private individuals in order to assume a secondary identity as modern state citizens.

HE in Africa is as old as Egypt's pyramids, Ethiopia's obelisks, and Timbuktu's Kingdom. Egypt's Al-Azhar, founded as & still main seat of Islamic learning, is the oldest university that still exists in the world. Indeed, Al-Azhar is currently the world's only major academic institution organized by its real Islamic model. The Western model of academic organization has been adopted by all other universities in Africa, and indeed rest of world. Although Africa can claim an ancient academic tradition, fact is that traditional higher learning centers in Africa have all but disappeared or colonialism has destroyed them. Today, the continent is governed by colonial-formed and centralized academic institutions based on the European model. HE is legacy of colonial policies in Africa, as is the case in developing world. A multitude of European colonizers— including Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, Portugal, and These colonial legacies affect higher education in contemporary Africa. The most powerful colonial powers in Africa, Britain and France have by far left the greatest lasting impact, not only in terms of academic organisation and ongoing ties with the metropolis, but also in language of instruction & interaction. There were some common elements in the colonial higher education program. These include: Limited access: Widespread access to HE was feared by the colonial authorities. They were interested in training limited numbers of African nationals to help manage the colonies. Some colonial powers, especially the Belgians, in their colonies forbade higher education. Others, like the Spaniards and the Portuguese, kept very small enrollments. The French chose to send to study in France a limited no. of students from their colonies. The size of the educational system at time of independence was very small across Africa. Language. The language of instruction in every case was language of colonizer. In few countries, existing forms of local languages utilized in ―higher forms of education‖ were replaced via language of colonizers. Limited freedom. Limits on academic freedom & on autonomy of academic institutions were norm. Limited curriculum. At time of independence, university curricula in Africa was dramatically restricted. The colonizers tended to support disciplines like law & related fields that would assist with colonial administration and were not expensive to implement. Rarely have scientific subjects been given.

Public institutions of higher education predominate in Africa, and the tradition is government involvement in university affairs. This legacy is reflected in the current governance structure in most African universities. Throughout much of Africa, Head of State holds ultimate authority in appointing vice-chancellors & others down administrative line as chancellor or president; this is particularly typical of English-speaking Africa. The chancellorship is ceremonial position in English-speaking countries. The vice-chancellor, who is similar to a president of an American university, has executive power granted by the board of directors, which is largely made up of government appointees. It was also known that the vice-chancellors were appointed by an education minister with or without Parliament's or even a chancellor's approval. Under normal circumstances, for example, in Democratic Republic of Congo, university presidents are nominated by academic republic. The organizational power chain starts with the vice-chancellor, then passes to deans / directors, and then heads the department.

The fundamental fact at start of the 21st century for all African higher education systems is severe financial crisis. Academy is facing fiscal problems everywhere, even in affluent industrialized nations, but the severity of these problems in Africa is greater than anywhere else. The triggers are not difficult to discern, including: • Expansion and "massification" pressures that have brought significant no. of students to most African academic institutions & systems. • The economic problems that many African countries face, making it difficult, if not impossible, to provide increased funding for HE. • Improved fiscal climate caused by multilateral funding organizations such as World Bank & International Monetary Fund • Students ' inability to afford the tuition rates required for fiscal stability & in some cases, their inability to enforce tuition fees due to political or other stress. • Misallocation and inadequate prioritization of available financial resources, such as traditional financial assets. Not all of these elements are present in every African country, of course, and financial circumstances vary, but in any analysis of African higher education, funding issues are very large overall. HE in Africa is four-to-five-billion-dollar business. Egypt's HE is US$ 1.29 billion enterprise with the largest student population in Africa. Nigeria accounts for about one-third of the remaining total with an estimated half-a-billion dollar budget. Similar to other continent nations, South Africa, Tunisia, Libya, and Algeria seem to dispense a significant portion of the remaining spending. Citizenship education in South Africa South Africa's Constitution refers to critical & democratic citizenship. Ramphele points out that the language utilized in preamble to Constitution affirms a commitment to democratic practice & active citizenship. The key question for us is: how to interpret effective citizenship in democratic SA? Until 1994, according to Ramphele, two variants of citizenship dominated South Africa's moral

while progressive citizenship emphasizes the rights & responsibilities of citizens. Robertson points out that what is relevant to a number of concepts of citizenship is mutual relationship of rights and responsibilities. Social life involves not only the exercise of rights or the recognition of obligations, but also moral codes which should direct people to exercise and enforce those rights. A liberal-communitarian view permits each individual to pursue his or her personal interest in accordance with democratic practice, but it should be noted that liberal democracies also rely on active citizenship, i.e. involvement of citizens in social & political processes, consideration of welfare of others & consideration of others. Waghid recognizes this point when he argues that citizenship education in SA is guided via combination of liberal & community views of citizenship, but that this guiding principle in itself is inadequate to produce desired outcome of active citizens with mindsets, attitudes & values that enable democracies to thrive & abolish. Implications for values education in South Africa In view of these views, what are the consequences for the values of learning in South Africa? We agree that the South African values education discourse must take into account the various interpretations of' values,'' values education,' and' citizenship education,' and strive for a substantive and mutual inter-subjective understanding of the meaning to be applied to these notions. Morning gives insight into such a pragmatist mentality when he advises us to regard as' shared goods.' He implies that shared goods are not simply the integration of different interests, but are an articulation of values that bring meaning and direction to the community's existence. Common goods are what ties together a society. The foundations of social cohesion would be affected by the loss of a sense of common purpose and a shared future without these shared goods. Morrow's view alerts us to those moral positions that diminish cultures and help lay the foundation for generative inter-subjective processes. For example, compliance with rule of law & respect for diversity are considered to be shared values or ethical agreements that every South African must practice. Failure to do so would also lead to uncertainty, theoretical ambiguity, and conflicting views on values and the role of values in society.

How to revitalize HE in SA as African economies began to recover, together with current recognition via World Bank Group & other development agencies that higher education could play significant role in Africa's socio-economic development process and a Such is the case: • Administration & organizational management. • Academic mobility, including Diaspora of Africa. • Training, training and research ICT production. • Making available African theses & other scholarly works to broader audience in & outside Africa. Graduate and limited PhD support grants. • Connecting universities with competitive economic sectors, helping African higher education institutions to help their host countries achieve sustainable development goals through policy research. Initiatives such as Africa Centers of Excellence, Engineering & Technology, Pan African University, Harmonization of African Higher Education Quality Assurance and Accreditation are part of various efforts aimed at improving African Higher Education and need financial and other support.

There is a need for greater collaboration and cooperation between industry and higher learning educational institutions in Africa to tackle the multiple challenges facing higher education. Investment in HE should ensure that the governance framework promotes excellence, provides reasonable financial autonomy, and enhances institutional accountability and governing body. Institutions will encourage decentralization of internal resource management and facilitate the use of information management systems and transparency in governance, resource utilization and communication of results.

Gender imbalance is phenomenon within the continent's educational institutions. The social, sociological, economic, emotional, historical and political influences foster such differences. While there are a number of ongoing efforts to address gender imbalances, remainder to be done crossways all education sectors. The gender imbalance in HE is acute in nearly all African countries and in most disciplines. Numerous institutions. • According to Habtamu Wondimu, efforts have been made in Ethiopia to recover female enrollment rate–which has been around 15% for the past few years–by reducing the admission grade point average. This "affirmative action," he says, has raised the admission rate for female students. The higher attrition rate between women, however, continues to plague the overall status and number of women in Ethiopian higher education. • In Malawi, where only 25% of the student population is female, there is an affirmative selection policy for women. • The proportion of female students in Mozambique has gradually increased since 1992. The gender ratio was still high. • Many Tanzanian institutions have taken steps to recover participation of female students, who currently account for between 25% and 30% of enrolled students. In the first-year intake of 2000–2001, 49 percent of women were registered by Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences at Dar es Salaam University. As in Ethiopia, grade-point-average cutoff point for female candidates was lowered in order to encourage more females to apply for entry. • It is estimated that gender inequality in Uganda has declined over the past decade. Women made up 27% of Makerere University's total student intake in 1990–1991, but today they make up 34% of the inscriptions. Ugandan universities, including institutions in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Tanzania, give preferential treatment to female students. With the grant of additional points, proportion of female students enrolled has increased to 34 percent. • There was also a reduction in academic qualifications in Zimbabwe to increase female enrolment.

Education does not have silver bullets, but it may come close to educating girls. In addition to its intrinsic value, educating girls can increase educational achievement, improve family health, decrease fertility, enhance social stability, and increase economic growth. Such strong multiplier effects ensure that the education of girls will continue to be a key priority for progress. Once in college, girls Boys across the Uk, Australia, the Americas, and much of Asia are more likely to drop out of school, repeat a grade, and do bad reading assessments. This is generally true, regardless of how rich or poor a nation may be. Boys are less likely than girls to finish high school throughout Latin America, the Caribbean and Asia in middle-income countries. Fourteen percent of boys across affluent OECD countries (compared to nine percent of girls) failed to reach baseline level of math, science and reading skills for PISA in 2012. Across sub-Saharan Africa, females often attend high school at much lower rates than males, although this shifts across middle-income countries like SA and Namibia. Yet wider global trends suggest that while we've learned lot about getting girls to college, we need to figure out how to keep boys in school.

Increased rates of completion of primary school have stepped up demand for secondary education as a path to higher education and career skills development. While no. of lower secondary school students in Sub-Saharan Africa has doubled since 2000, 65 million adolescents (UNESCO) are still not mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa and SA (UNICEF) at school. Most low-and middle-income countries around the world have maximum % of children, a high proportion of whom boys are often uneducated, homeless, and disabled. Such a situation does not only threaten a country's economic health; it can threaten national & global security, as we have seen with gunmen in Honduras in paris. Internationally, secondary education is where there are gaps everywhere in the education system. A focus on harder & more specialized content, often taught in didactic, "classical" way; high-stakes examination systems that often sort students into tracks, away from their interests & ultimately out of school, make school less attractive. Such shortcomings worsen the above-mentioned issues of equality and performance as well as age.

In quite a large number of African institutions, teaching & research staff are smaller than non-academic / administrative staff. In African universities, the administrative bureaucracy is disproportionately large. Some examples illustrate this disparity: • Matora Ntimo-Makara reports at the National University of Lesotho that there are twice as many non-academic support staff as there are academics, and more

non-teaching of personnel costs. This places constraints on creating additional teaching positions to increase capacity in academic programs. • James Stiles reports in Madagascar that student-to-administrator ratio residue maximum compared to other countries & maximum relative to student-to-teacher ratio. That remains true even after a 5 percent reduction in no. of administrative staff in 1997, while the teaching staff increased. • Togo, according to Emmanuel Edee, has 1,136 administrative & technical staff in HE, but there are less than 730 academic staff, of whom only 55% are full-time employees. Although no. of non-academic staff is more, they face several problems, including excess staffing & lack of communication among various services & students. The no. of non-academic staff and the proportion of resources allocated to this sector is disproportionately high, and it leaves much to be desired for the quality and performance of the administrative framework. There is rampant corruption and inefficiency. Training and development of skills are rare for non-academic staff.

Technology, Education and Development The methods and innovations of 1960s & 1970s are still being taught by engineering, technical and vocational schools. There is a complete discrepancy among knowledge & skills acquire by graduates of these African schools and those needed via industry or for self-employment. The consequence is increasing no. of unemployed youth & job losses from professional craftsmen & slower economic growth as industry is unable to find the skilled and skilled workers they need. Restless are those who are unemployed and unemployed. Most of these people who are unemployed are the youth who are a political time bomb. There is an alarming trend in the recent rebellion and protests in many African cities. The technical education program is being seriously re-examined by governments across Africa. Castells ' departments on funding university projects, several academic projects for' individual advancement' rather than academic value, & vice-chancellors struggling to juggle competing notions of university role. Despite the negative scenario, there are indications that industry collaboration is growing and, more importantly, the private sector is becoming more vocal about education and employment issues. The relation between technology, education, and socio-economic development is becoming clearer, and to address these concern, African governments need to take concrete and urgent steps. Otherwise, Africa is in danger of negating recent progress and being left behind by rest of world. Therefore, innovative universities are needed to create the capacity for people to connect work directly with what is happening in society.

The article attempted to address what is meant by education in principles and beliefs in the sense of the education system in South Africa. Our position is that if it is not informed by careful clarification, it is unlikely that values education will meet the expectations of the Constitution and the revised school curriculum in any significant way. The need for more ongoing discussion, informed deliberation and reconceptualization of values education in the national curriculum of South Africa is a significant conclusion drawn from this paper. We are aware of the fact that there are still unexamined dimensions and problems that need to be addressed in terms of values learning. We agree that the government's current policy recommendations fall lacking of offering a framework for teaching positive principles in classrooms. We believe that addressing these deficiencies is a prerequisite for a coherent value education policy. Sustainable training and its practical application are vital to Africa's sustainable. Because curriculum has always evolved to meet the needs of businesses and industries, future learning will continue to change. The ability of our educational system to provide a workforce to sustain our current and future economy depends on a strong economy.

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Namibian Politician & Private School Principal