Study the Medieval Period of Indo-Muslim Fusion of Culture

INTRODUCTION

The sultanate of Delhi is a term used to cover five short dynasties centred in Delhi, mostly Turkish or Pastun (Afgan) kingdoms or sultans of mediaeval Indian origin. Delhi was ruled by the sultan between 1206 & 1526, when the last Mughal dynasty was replaced. The fifth dynstys of the Indian cultural Renaissance was in the time from Mamuluk (1206–1290), the Khilji (1290–1320) and Thughlaq (1320–1414), the Sayyid (1414–51), & Afghan Lodi (1450–1526) dynasty. The ensuing Indo-Muslim cultural fusion left permanent monuments to syncretism in architecture, music , language, faith, and clothes. It is believed that during this time the Urdu language was born as a result of a combination of Sanskrit Prairie speakers & Muslim immigrants speaking Persian, Turkish, and Arabic. In 1256 Delhi was absorbed by the emerging Mugal empire, the Delhi sultanate is just a Muslim Empire that has enthroned one of the few female rulers in India, Rajia sultana (1236-1240).

Shihab-u-din Mahammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur was the real founder of the Muslim empire in India. Muhamnmad bin Qasim was indeed the first Muslim invader of India but because of his premature death, he failed to create a Muslim empire in India. Muhmud of Ghazni was also unable to establish a Moslem Empire in India. The annexation of the Punjab was the only lasting consequence of his invasions. The creation of a Muslim Empire in India on a secure footing had been left to Mohammed Ghori. A rough mountainous land, between Ghazni & Herat, dominated by the Ferozkab Castle or the Victory Hill, was the principality of Ghur. It was populated by a race of the then sub-tribal Afghan highlands. Sultan Mahmmud was presented by the Ghori, but they permitted their territories to be kept in tribute. The fortune of the Ghori was previously found by the blood fuel that existed between the Ghori chiefs & later Sultan Mahmmud's successors. Muhammad Ghori's incursion into India has contributed a variety of factors. He was an exceptionally powerful & pioneering prince. It is pointed out. He felt he was the successor to the Punjab who belonged to Gazni 's Empire. Security reasons also requested that Khusrau Malik, Punjab 's ruler and the Multan's karmathians be vanquished. It was a time of militant glory, and the love of conquest & power was burning against Muhammad Ghori. He desired dignity and richness. As a Muslim, the Hindus of India where he wanted to defeat and Islam was spread there. The conquest of the Ghurid was not induced by religious zeal, as per Dr. Tarachand. It was the product of Islamic political changes.

In 1210 he was succeeded by the Slave of Aibak Shasuddhin Iltumish (1210-36) in Delhi. If Qutub-ud-din 's successor Aram shah was deposed & he

until his death in May1236. This was the two basic coins of the Sultanate that Intutmish introduced silver tanka & copper Jital, & that wasn't only responsible for keeping the Sultanate in Delhi together, but for a knit & compact state. He may therefore have been named the real founder of what had become known as the Delhi sultanate. He was the slave who distinguished himself by merit. In Turkestan he was a Libarian Truk. He was a noble family member. He was a boy and very handsome, displaying signs of wisdom and intellect. He was jealous of his brothers, who managed to take him away from his father's house, sold him to a merchant from Bukhara & sold him to Qutbud-din Aibak. He rose up steadily until he was appointed Badaun Governor. It was manumitated & given the Amir-ud Umara rank in recognition of his ministry by Muhammad Ghori 's orders. The Rajputs:- Another headache for Iltutmish was the problem of Rajput. The Rajputs did their best after the death of Aibak to drive the Turks away. In Kalinjar & Ajairagrh the Chandellas rebelled. The Muslim Gwalior garrisons have been removed by the Parthiharas. Narwar & Jhansi were also occupied. The Rajputs cannot be expected to remain independent for a long time from Iltutmish. In 1226 he assied, captured and rearranged Ranthambhor. Also captured & rearrested was Mandor, the capital of the Paramara Rajpput. Next Jalor assaulted. The ruler of Udai Shah offered steep resistance. He was finally obliged to give in. However, on condition of paying his tribute he was permitted to continue as a ruler.

During the Iltutmish time India was threatened by a terrible risk. Having chosen to seek shelter in the court of Delhi, Chingiz Khan, the Mongol emperor, has advanced to the Indus in search of Jal-Ud-din, the Prince of Khwarzam or Khiva. After plundering his fleet in Persia from Sind & Gujarat, Iltutmish declined to comply with the order from his unwanted guest & thus jalala al-din. Chingiz retired there, & India was free from the terror of an Invasion of the Mongals (1221).

Followed by the death of Queen Raziya was one of her brothers & one of her nephews six years of sloppy rule, her younger brother Nasir-ud-Din, the king's third slave son. Altamish took the throne & reigned 20 years.(1246- 1266)And Ulugh Khan, later Sultan Balban, was always the true force behind this throne. Initially, the notable man was a slave bought from Turkish, but from that position he rose to be was a servant, a general & man from the state, and as the death of Nasir, he succeeded in becoming a crown of emperor Balban & ruled himself for twenty years with the same qualities of noble grandeur as his previous life.

Allaudin Khalji is very excellent among the Delhi sultans. The Khalji dynasty was founded throughout India during its rule. Sir Wolseley Haig said, "The imperial age of sultanate, that lasted around half a century, starts with the reign of Allauddin. Not only was Allauddin a competent general, a commendable conqueror, and a brilliant warrior, but also an outstanding administrator.

Ala-uddin khilji was a instinctive imperialist. Blatantly determined, his earlier conquests of Malwa and Deogiri had convinced him of his military genius and whetted his insatiable appetite for wealth and glory. Similarly, Ulagh Khan's and Nusrat Khan's unprecedented victories over Gujrat and Anhilwara in 1299 A.D. where the Bengal ruler Karan Singh, had fled leaving his wife and children as captives further inspired him to purse his imperialistic designs.

Ranthambor: Alla -ud-din Khilji first focused his attention towards the conquest of Rajputhana. The immediate purpose was the capture of Ranthambor fortress which had earlier defied all attempts for a permanent seizure. Under the brilliant military command of Ulagh Khan and Nusrat Khan, who headed a large army the fortress of Jhans was successfully captured while that of Ranthambor was besieged. Unfortunately Nusrat Khan succumbed to a stone injury. Ultimately, Rana Hammir was forced to leave the fortress but he fought with such ferocity that the Muslims were forced to raise the siege of Ranthambhor and recede to Jhani. Now, Ala-ud-din himself led the campaign. Mewar- During 1302 and 1303 A.D emboldened by his success, Ala-ud-din turned toward Mewar. No Muslim king had yet ventured to explore and exploit this secluded region, protected by a long chain of hills and deep forests. The fort of Chittor itself, cut from a rock, situated on top of a hill, was insurmountable. Alla-ud-din's instant objective in Chittor was to obtain the possession of Padmini, the unrivaled queen of Raja Ratan Sing, renowned

Immensely insulted more than seven hundred palanquins of brave Rajput warriors dressed as women reached Alla-ud-din's camp and successfully rescued the Rana to Chittor" Alla-ud-din's Deccan policy:The Deccan plateau, separated from Northern India by the Vindhyas and in the Satpura ranges, enjoyed a geographical hegemony which though never impenetrate, taxed the energies and forbearance of every invader. Nevertheless its very seclusion and legends of incalculable wealth invoked the imperialistic ambitions of mighty rulers. The Truks, themselves had heard countless legends of its enormous wealth by the Arab merchants who traded at the Coromandal coast, as early as seventh century A.D. Muhammad Ghazni had successfully penetrated up to Gujrat. Causes of his Deccan Invasions:Political- Alla-ud-din, as Governor of Kara, in 1294 A.D. had successfully invaded Devgiri. There, he had personally witnessed and partly collected the legendry wealth of the Deccan, which had equally impressed Amir Khusrau, Barani and Ferishtah. However, both Ferishtah and Barani have misinterpreted Alla-ud-din's invasion as "aiming a permanent conquest of the Deccan". Pandya Kingdom(1311): From Dwarasamundra, Malik Kafur marched to Mabar where a war of succession was already afoot between Sunder Pandya and Vira Pandey. Sundara Pandey was defeated by Vira Pandey. . Sunder Pandys, enraged at his father‘s partiality to Vir Pandya, murdered him and seized the crown for himself. However, he was defeated by Vir Pandya and sought Malik Kafurs help who readily intervened. Success of his Deccan Policy:The principal success of Ala-ud-din's Deccan policy may be credited to his realism. Ala-ud-din must be given due credit for foreseeing the impossibility of establishing a permanent rule over Deccan given the conditions prevalent at the time of his accession. His constant wars with Rajputs and Mongols had brought home the disadvantages of an annexationist policy. Consequently, in the Deccan, he preferred to accomplished his imperialistic designs in stages. Hence, of the two alternatives viz., outright annexation or reducing the Deccan power to tributary states, It is a different matter that in the long-run, even the latter alternative did not prove to be lasting" Al-ud-din‘s suzerainty over the Deccan lasted only so long as he held away soon after his death, the Deccan and Southern kingdoms declared their independence. an indispensable necessity. Ala-ud-din had not only to put down sedition and weed out rebellions, but he had also to fight the Mongolss who were annually visiting our north-western frontier. He had besides, the ambition of conquering the whole of India. This he did by regulating the prices of grain, cloth and other necessaries of life and cheapening them so much that a soldier could live comfortably on a mere Pittance He fixed the prices of food-grains, cloth and other commodities far below the usual mar.ket rates. The state collected its revenue in kind from the Kailas lands and, if possible, also from the territory held by vassals and, thus raises large stocks of grain. No one else was permitted to purchase grain from the tillers of the soil except those merchants who were authorized by a permit to do so.

Causes of Failure: Muhammed bin Tughlaq (1324-51) is best remembered as a ruler who undertook a number of bold experiments, and showed a keen interest in agriculture. In some ways, Muhammad bin -Tughlaq was one of the remarkable ruler of his age. He was deeply read in religion and philosophy and had a critical and open mind, Unfortunately, he was inclined to be hasty and impatient" That is why so many of his, experiments failed and he has been dubbed as "ill-starred idealist". Muhammad Tughlaq in reign started under inauspicious circumstance- sultan Ghiyaasuddin to Delhi after his successful campaign Tughlaq was returning against Bengal. A wooden pavilion was erected hastily at the orders of Muhammed- Tughlaq to give fitting reception to the sultan. When the captured elephants were being pavaded structure collapsed and sultan was killed" This led to a number of rumours that Muhammed-Tughlaq had conspired to kill hi* father. Transfer of Capital: The most contentious step which Muhammed-Tughlaq under took soon after his accession was so called transfer of the capital from Delhi to Deogiri. It was renamed Daulatabad. Several reasons led to this fateful decision. The first was that the Sultan was anxious to have a capital which should not only be situated at a strategic place but should also be in the centre of his far - flung kingdom. Muhammad was impressed by Davagiri, and we are told by Barani that the geographical importance of the place was one of the reasons for its selection as the metropolis. Secondly, Delhi was too near the north -western frontier which was constantly threatened by Mongol raids, while the sultan wanted the new capital to be at safe distance from the invaders from the north - west. Thirdly, while northern India had almost been

that had its headquarters in southern India. Lastly, he must surely have felt that Southern India was so rich and that he would be able to utilize its resources more easily and effectively by an intimate contact with it. Creation of agricultural department: The next experiment of Muhammad Tughluq was the creation of the department of agriculture. lt was called Diwan-i-Kohi. The main object of this department was to bring the uncultivated land under cultivation by giving direct financial support from the state treasury. A large tract of land sixty miles square in area, was first chosen for this purpose. The land was cultivated and different crops in rotation were sown. The land was distributed among those who were in the need of it and a large staff of officers and guards was appointed to look after it. The introduction of token currency, 1329-30: The reign of Muhammad Tughluq is an important landmark in the history of Indian coinage. He has been called 'a prince of moneyers'. His most notable experiment in the field was the introduction of token currency. There were several reasons for introducing copper coinage. Firstly, there was the want of precious money in the treasury which had been drained by war and rebellions and also by costly experiments in the field of administration. Secondly, owing to famine and harsh taxation policy in the Doab, there was considerable fall in the sultan's revenue. Thirdly, he was anxious to augment in revenues in order to undertake the conquest of the distant provinces of India and some foreign countries. Fourthly, Muhammad was fond of experimentation and, therefore, waned to open a new chapter in the history of coinage in India.

Administration and Public Works: The sudden death of Muhammad Tughlaq in Thatta, in 1351 A.D" amidst a military campaign, created an anomalous situation. On the one hand, it perilously left an army leaders, amongst rebels and the Mongol mercenaries, who were adept in shifting loyalties. On the other hand, the imperial throne lay vacant, which was against the peculiar nature of the Muslim state. Unless the successor was chosen forthwith, the imperial court at Delhi, situated at a distance and brimming with court intrigues, could put forth any number of candidates that would unleash a war of succession. The reasonable choice of the nobles and the officers present in the imperial camp fell on Firuz Tughlaq who had been groomed in the art of kingship, both under his uncle, Ghazi Tughlaq and later under his cousin, Muhammad Tughlaq. Firuz Tughlaq, described as a man of religious temperament and mild manners by his contemporaries, was reluctant to accept, but, Administration: When Firuz ascended the the one he was over forty years of age. Firuz had spent his most formative years in close association with Muhammad Tughlaq. lntensely aware of the miserable failure of his administration, Firuz wes determined to avoid similar failures. Firuz had witnessed the disorder that the nobility and the ulemas had played in the state politics, as a result of their estrangement with the Sultan. He was, therefore, determined to appease the nobility and the theologians, with whose help he had occupied the throne. He had also witnessed the untold economic depression wrought on the people, by the various- innovations of Muhammad Tughlaq.

Attitude towards the Ulemas and Sheikhs: To the modern historians, Firuz Tughlaq's religious policy has been a subject of controversy. Some historians like R.C. Majumdar have termed Firuz as a fanatic who tried to conduct the affairs of the state according to the theocratic principles. On the other hand, to the moderates, 'Firuz was a religious devout, inclined towards orthodoxy' Firuz, however, was a shrewd sultan who exploited religion to strengthen his own position. Firuz temperarnentally was religiously inclined. Lodhi dynasty: The Lodhi dynesty was an Pastun dynesty that rules northen India from 1451-1526. It was founded by Bahlul Lodi, when he was replaced by Sayyid dynesty. It was ended after Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur from Kabulisthan in 1526 Battle of Panipath. It was during the period of the Lodi that first Portuguse Armada under Vasco-daGama landed in India. Political History: The Afghans, unlike the Turks, had not entered into lndia with the ambition to rule. Primarily, they came as traders. Circumstances, however, transpired to make them politically oriented. Under Sayyids, they received Jagirs and assignments in large numbers, especially in Punjab while the Sayyids found increasingly difficult to administer. Bahlol Lodi -'1451-1489 A.D: Bahtol Lodi belonged to the Lodi cl an of Afghanistan. Overtly ambitious, brave and far sighted he exploited the existing turmoil to his utmost advantage. He soon became an indispensable Governor to the Sayyids and ultimately secured the throne for himself. Sikandal Lodi (1489-1517-A.D): The Afghan Amirs after Bahlols‘s death, elevated his son Nizam Khan to the throne who assumed the title of Sikandar Shah. He was however, opposed by a

of Jaunpur and another son of Bahlol Lodi. Ultimately Sikandar Shah out maneuvered Barbak's anecdotes and proclaimed himself as the king on 17 July, 1489 A.D Domestic policy towards Barbak shah: The first to feel Sikandar's prowess was Barbak Shah. At first, Sikandar sent an emissary and attempted to establish peace. Barbak, unfortunately, encouraged by Hussain Sharqui, the ex-ruler of Jaunpur, showed no enthusiasm. Sikandar next led an army and defeated Barbak but resotred the latter as the nominal sovereign of Jaunpur. He, however, divided Jaunpur into fiefs amongst the followers. The peace proved short lived. The Zamindars, instigated by Hussain Sharqui revolted and forced Barbak Shah to flee to Lucknow. Sikandar again crushed the rebellion and resorted Barbak Shah for the second time. When the later continued to prove an incapable administrator, he was removed and Jaunpur was annexed to the empire. Towards the Nobility: Sikandar Shah, unlike Bahlol, was determined to demarcate the staus and the powers of the Sultan vis-ir-vis the Afghan Amirs. Consequently, he introduced a series of regulations of court etiquette. He ordered a throne for himself symbolic of the elevated status of the monarchy. The Amirs had to walk four or five miles to receive the Royal Firmans and had to acknowledge the Royal sanctity by placing their documents on his forehead .lf the Farman was read in a public place, the Amirs had to stand at a lower level than the messenger who represented the king. To further strengthen his hold over the Amirs, Sikandar ordered a complete review of the whole administration, with special emphasis on the auditing of accounts. Wherever any inconsistency was found, high or low were punished evenly. Religion: Sikandar's religious outlook, however, blemished his otherwise just character" His Hindu lineage infused in him a guilt complex and he spent his later years to prove to his adversaries his ardent devotion to lslam. Consequently, he destroyed number of temples as also the sacred image of the Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkol and built mosques at Mathura, Narnol and chanderi. Like Firuz Tughlaq, he too encouraged conversion. This bigotry greatly alienated his Hindu subjects. lbrahim Lodi 1517-1526 : lbrahim Lodi the eldest son of Sikander lodi, ascended the throne with the unanimous consent of the Afghan nobility in November 1 517 A.D.. While Bahlol had controlled the Afgan nobility by a combination of diplomacy and tact and Sikander sheer straight of his personality. Ibrahim, on the other hand, prove inferior to his forefathers, both in character and ability. Born to a Conquests: lbrahim tried to emulate his father policy of surprising the various rebel chiefs. The provincial Governors, on the other hand, proved more defiant and powerful than ever before. Ibrahim, therefore, needed greater, restraint and endurance than his forefathers to effectively suppress them. Gwalior: The Sultan sent a force under Aram Humayun words License successfully captured the fortress of Gwalior.

The Empire of Vijaynagara was established in the region of Deccan Plateau in southern India. As the culmination of Southern powers' efforts to deter Islamic conquest, the empire rose into prominence by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1665, but its influence declined in 1565 following Deccan Sultanates' major military derailment. The empire is named after Vijayanagar, its capital city, which is now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka , India. The remains were surrounded by the present city Hampi. Medieval European tourists' writings, such as Domingo peas, Fernao news & local language literature, are valuable knowledge for their history. Archeological exploration in vijaynagara has shown the dominance & richness of the empire. Vijayanagar's early history is grim. Swell, the popular writer in A Forogetten Empire, has listed several traditional accounts of the origins of the town of Vijayanagar, noting that "perhaps the fair account will be named as the general drift of Hindus legends combined with the certainties of historical evidence." There could be no better opportunity of liberate their country form the Muslims than the present one. The view of the Lat Rev. Father Heras was that the foundation of the city of Aneginds, which formed the cradle of the Vijayanagar Empire, was laid by vira Ballala III, the Hoyasala king and Harihara who was a near relative of the ruling family of Hoyasala, was a frontier officer.

The Turko -Afgan rule came to end in India in 1526 with the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi at the hands of Babur. The decline of Delhi sultanate had begun much earlier. It reached its highest limits of territorial expansion in the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq but almost the same time it began to suffer from dissolution. Neither Muhammad nor his successor successes in restoring the unity of the

The Tughlaq Empire had been responsible somewhat for Muhammad Tughluq 's collapse. The people had a lot of pain when he moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. His effort to conquer Khorasan cost him a great deal with the introduction of the token currency. His taxation of the Doab turned his people into the empire's enemies. He also created a large number of the imperial enemies through his personal character. Not unexpectedly, in many parts of the empire there were many revolts. If Muhammad Tughluq had been good in having a powerful personality, this disintegration could've been prevented. He was followed by Florence Tughluq who, though he didn't and became famous with the public, couldn't conquer again that part of India that was formerly part of the Delhi Sultanate due to a lack of martial qualities. In the Vijayanagar and the Muslim state, regarded as the Bahmani Kingdom, he took no action against the Hindu Empire.

The situation deteriorated with Firuz Tughluq 's successors. The empiric areas which became independent of Ghiyasud-din Tughluq, Shahil, thus Bakr shah, Nasir-ud-din Muhammad, Ala-ud-din Sikanda & Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad, who ruled between 1388-1413 were too weak to win. Indeed, the disintegrative process was accelerated during the reins of the poor Firuz Tughluq successors even in the parts of India which were under Florentine Tughluq, during their reign. The consequence was the disintegrating process, rather than the start. The rulers were pleased with their personal pleasures. They spent time battling each other. They sent armed troops to pillage & massacre the people, but they did little to ensure that the people were able to gain trust and allegiance by themselves. Economic cause: Firuz Tughluq made a number of errors that helped to bring down the empire of the Tughluq. The Jagir method revived it. Instead of paying them wages, he gave his great nobles huge jagirs. Viceroyalties were frequently the Jagirs. Eminent individuals were allocated to large districts & even provinces. Mardan Daulat was given the title "king of the East" to Kara & Dalamau. The separate jagirs were Oudh, Sandila and Zoli. Religious policy: The collapse of the Tughluq dynasty also took part in his religious politics. Firuz Tughluq was an uncompromising Muslim Sunni. The Non-Muslims & Hindus he was happy to persecute. The Hindus' temples have been destroyed & their idols have been damaged & humiliated. They had burnt their books. Threats & tentations converted the Hindus to lslam. Jizia has been derived very strictly from them. Brahmanes have not even been spared. killing thousands of Hindus & captured 23 000 of them and turning them into slaves. Hindu Revolt: While the Hindus had a long time been subject to foreign rule, their attempts to be free & independent were not abandoned. Conquering and annexing Ranthambor took over 150 years. The Doab is very similar to Delhi, but it was never submissive. The Hindus still revolted and the Delhi sultanate 's power was nominal. No wonder as often as the Delhi Sultanate authority became weak, in different parts of India they revolted & became self-employed. Police state: It was just a police state, the sultanate of Delhi. Their only aim was to maintain the law, order & revenue collection. It lost its very reason of existence because it failed to perform its duties satisfactorily.

This Indo-Muslim fusion of culture is a syncretism that remains monuments in architecture, musical style, literature & clothe and utilized to cover five short-lived dynasties. It is believed that during this time the Urdu language was born mostly as result of a combination of Sanskrit Prairie speakers & Muslim immigrants speaking Persian, Turkish, & Arabic. In 1256 Delhi was absorbed by the emerging Mugal empire, the Delhi sultanate is just a Muslim Empire that has enthroned one of the few female rulers in India, Rajia sultana (1236-1240).

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Research Scholar, Swami Vivekanand University, Sagar, MP